Preface
Preface
1
John P. Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1988).
2
William Serrin, Homestead: The Glory and Tragedy of an American Steel Town (Vintage Books, 1993); Judith Modell, A Town Without Steel: Envisioning Homestead (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1988); Patrick Vitale, Nuclear Suburbs: Cold War Technoscience and the Pittsburgh Renaissance (Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2021); Allen Dieterich-Ward, Beyond Rust: Metropolitan Pittsburgh and the Fate of Industrial America (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2015); Gabriel Winant, The Next Shift: The Fall of Industry and the Rise of Heath Care in Rust Belt America (Harvard Univ. Press, 2021).
Introduction
Say It Ain't Pittsburgh
1
Press briefing by Press Secretary Robert Gibbs, May 28, 2009, available at the President Barack Obama website.
2
Dan Fletcher, "Why Is the G-20 Being Held in Pittsburgh?," Time, Sept. 23, 2009.
3
Derek Thompson, "Why in the World Is the G20 Meeting in Pittsburgh?," Atlantic, May 2009. Link
4
David Jackson, "Obama Will Host Next G20—in Pittsburgh," USA Today, May 28, 2009.
6
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, At the Forks, vol. 4 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1964), i-19. Link
7
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 52; Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry, Bureau of Employment Security, Labor Market Letter, Pittsburgh Area, Office of Commonwealth Libraries, State Library of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg. Link
8
Sheldon Russell, "Industrial Shifts in Western Pennsylvania," in The Western Pennsylvania Region in Economic Transition, ed. Andrew R. Blair et al. (Univ. of Pittsburgh, Graduate School of Business, 1983), 30.
9
Wilbur Richard Thompson, A Preface to Urban Economics (Published for Resources for the Future by Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1965), 24.
10
Dick Conway, "A Hard Fall," Seattle Business, Dec. 30, 2009.
11
Greg Lange, "Billboard Reading: 'Will the Last Person Leaving SEATTLE—Turn Out the Lights' Appears Near SeaTac International Airport on April 16, 1971," June 8, 1999, Historylink.org. Link
12
Rick Boyer and David Savageau, Places Rated Retirement Guide: Finding the Best Places in America for Retirement Living (Rand McNally, 1983).
13
John Landis and David Sawicki, "A Planner's Guide to the Places Rated Almanac," Working Paper (Institute of Urban and Regional Development, Univ. of California, Berkeley, Aug. 1987), 3. Link
14
Richard A. Becker et al., "Analysis of Data from the Places Rated Almanac," American Statistician 41, no. 3 (1987): 169–86. Link
15
Kathy Wilhelm, "Pittsburghers React to Life at the Top," Associated Press, Feb. 28, 1985. Link
16
J. Kenneth Evans, "Almanac Co-Author Refuses Key to City," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 5, 1985. Link
17
Geoffrey R. Loftus, "Say It Ain't Pittsburgh," Psychology Today, June 1985, 8. Link
18
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, At the Forks, vi-37. Link
19
Richard L. Florida, The New Urban Crisis: How Our Cities Are Increasing Inequality, Deepening Segregation, and Failing the Middle Class—and What We Can Do About It (Basic Books, 2017).
20
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, At the Forks, vi-28. Link
21
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, At the Forks, vi-37. Link
22
Mel Seidenberg, "Look Ahead 25 Years," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 30, 1961. Link
Part I — Forever Steel
Chapter 1
Hell with the Lid Off
1
Kenneth Warren, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 18–19. Link
2
Ron Chernow, “The Deal of the Century,” American Heritage, July 1998, http://www.americanheritage.com/content/deal-century.
3
Chernow, “Deal of the Century.” Link
4
H. N. Eavenson, “The Pittsburgh Coal Bed: Its Early History and Development,” American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers Transaction 130 (1938): 6. Link
5
Eavenson, “Pittsburgh Coal Bed,” 13–14. Link
6
George Thornton Fleming, History of Pittsburgh and Environs: From Prehistoric Days to the Beginning of the American Revolution (American Historical Society, 1922), 490.
7
The view of Pittsburgh’s fate being as cast as manufacturing center is defined by Richard C. Wade’s Urban Frontier. A contrary idea, to a degree, is from Edward K. Muller—that Pittsburgh retained its role as a commerce center through the first half of the nineteenth century. See Richard C. Wade, The Urban Frontier: The Rise of the Western Cities, 1790–1830 (Univ. of Illinois Press, 1996); Edward K. Muller, “Was Pittsburgh’s Economic Destiny Set in 1815?,” Indiana Magazine of History 105, no. 3 (Sept. 2009): 203–18.
8
“Pittsburgh—Its Influence on the Navigation of the Ohio,” Magazine of Western History 2 (1885): 264.
9
Weston Arthur Goodspeed, Standard History of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania (H. R. Cornell & Company, 1898), 200. Link
10
Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City 1877–1919 (State Univ. of New York Press, 1984), 10.
11
John N. Ingham, Making of Iron and Steel (Ohio State Univ. Press, 1991), 28. Link
12
James Parton, “Pittsburg,” Atlantic Monthly, Jan. 1868, 17–21. Link
13
For more on puddling as it was practiced at the end of the nineteenth century, see James J. Davis, The Iron Puddler: My Life in the Rolling Mills and What Came of It (Bobbs-Merrill, 1922).
14
National Park Service, “The Eads Bridge,” Historical American Engineering Record, Apr. 1984, 14, available at the Library of Congress website, https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/pnp/habshaer/mo/m00300/m00361/data/m00361data.pdf. Link
15
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 271. Link
16
“Value of Natural Gas, Its Use Clarifies the Atmosphere at Pittsburg,” New York Times, Oct. 18, 1885. Link
17
Joshua Benjamin Freeman, Behemoth: A History of the Factory and the Making of the Modern World (W. W. Norton, 2018), 93. Link
Chapter 2
Basing Point Pittsburgh
2
George W. Stocking, Basing Point Pricing and Regional Development (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1954), 62. Link
3
“Welfare Talk Only at Steel Dinner,” New York Times, May 18, 1912. Link
4
“Pittsburgh’s Future Is Declared Secure by President Farrell,” Gazette Times (Pittsburgh), Aug. 11, 1911. Link
5
“Real Efficiency,” Town Development, Nov. 1916, 80. Link
6
Rebecca C. Shoemaker, The White Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy (ABCCLIO, 2004), 116.
7
John Leland Mechem, “TRADE REGULATION: The ‘Pittsburgh Plus’ Case,” American Bar Association Journal 10, no. 11 (1924): 806. Link
8
Marc Winerman and William E. Kovacic, “Outpost Years for a Start-Up Agency: The FTC from 1921–1925,” Antitrust Law Journal 77, no. 1 (2012): 184. Link
10
Robert P. Rogers, An Economic History of the American Steel Industry (Routledge, 2009), 66.
11
Louis Galambos, “The American Economy and the Reorganization of the Sources of Knowledge,” in The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America, 1860–1920, ed. Alexandra Oleson and John Voss (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1979), 276. Link
12
Janet T. Knoedler, “Market Structure, Industrial Research, and Consumers of Innovation: Forging Backward Linkages to Research in the Turnof-the-Century U.S. Steel Industry,” Business History Review 67, no. 1 (1993): 109–11.
13
Richard Boeckel, “The Iron and Steel Industry,” CQ Researcher 2 (1930). Link
14
“A Live Question for the Castings Trade,” Industrial World 44 (Oct. 30, 1911): 1302. Link
15
Charles Cheape, “Tradition, Innovation and Expertise: Writing the Steel Code for the National Recovery Administration,” Business and Economic History 25, no. 2 (1996): 70. Link
16
Michael Bernstein, The Great Depression: Delayed Recovery and Economic Change in America, 1929–1939 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989), 196. Link
17
“Giant New Irvin Works to Be Dedicated Today,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 15, 1938. Link
18
“Ingot Center Moves East—Historic Trend Is Reversed,” Milwaukee Journal, Aug. 6, 1937. Link
19
Memorandum on a Program for Community Planning in the Pittsburgh District, Bureau of Business Research, Univ. of Pittsburgh, July 22, 1935, 4, box Y, folder 216, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association Archives, Oliver Room Archives, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Link
Chapter 3
Arsenal
1
Joel Sabadasz, “Pittsburgh Industrial District—World War II Structures,” Historic American Engineering Record (National Park Service, 1991), 6.
2
Tim Colton, “Dravo Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA—Ships/Boats,” Shipbuilding History, most recent update, Sept. 14, 2014, http://shipbuildinghistory.com/shipyards/large/dravoboats.htm.
3
Stephanie Vincent, “Flipping the Plate: Changing Perceptions of the Shenango China Company, 1945–1991” (PhD diss., Kent State Univ., 2016), 28. Link
4
Leslie A. Przbylek, “Supplying the Battlefront,” Western Pennsylvania History 98, no. 1 (2015): 32.
5
James Duffy, Target—America: Hitler’s Plan to Attack the United States (Lyons Press 2004), 34.
6
Sabadasz, “Pittsburgh Industrial District,” 30.
7
Rogers, An Economic History of the American Steel Industry (Routledge, 2009), 90.
8
Frederick H. Gareau, “Morgenthau’s Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany,” Western Political Quarterly 14, no. 2 (1961): 531
9
Milton Gilbert, “The Impact of War on Commodity Prices,” Survey of Current Business 19, no. 10 (1939): 14. Link
10
Keith E. Eiler, Mobilizing America: Robert P. Patterson and the War Effort, 1940–1945 (Cornell Univ. Press, 1997), 184.
11
Michael G. Carew, Becoming the Arsenal: The American Industrial Mobilization for World War II, 1938–1942 (Univ. Press of America, 2010), 51
12
S. Burton Heath, “Shortage Blamed for Vision Circle of Delay in War Goods Production,” Pittsburgh Press, June 26, 1942. Link
13
Eiler, Mobilizing America, 183.
14
Sabadasz, “Pittsburgh Industrial District,” 10. Link
15
Associated Press, “Steel to Be Off Market Soon,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 12, 1941. Link
16
Steven Fenberg, Unprecedented Power—Jesse Jones, Capitalism, and the Common Good (Texas A&M Univ. Press, 2011), 356.
17
S. Burton Heath, “Shortage Blamed for Vicious Circle of Delay in War Woods Production,” Pittsburgh Press, June 26, 1942. Link
18
“Steel for Victory Pledges Given,” Eugene (OR) Register-Guard, July 2, 1943. Link
19
Sabadasz, “Pittsburgh Industrial District”; US Civilian Production Administration, Industrial Mobilization for War, History of the War Production Board and Predecessor Agencies, 1940–1945 (GPO, 1947), 663. Link
20
Peter Kaskell, “Production Under the Controlled Materials Plan,” Cornell Law Review 37, no. 4 (1952): 4. Link
21
David Novick and George A. Steiner, “The War Production Board’s Statistical Reporting Experience,” Journal of the American Statistical Association 43, no. 242 (1948): 220.
22
Sabadasz, “Pittsburgh Industrial District,” 11. Link
23
“MESTA 160-Inch Plate Mill,” Historic American Engineering Record (National Park Service, Department of the Interior, n.d.), 11. Link
25
“Giant New Furnaces Pour Steel,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 15, 1943. Link
26
Curtis Miner and Paul Roberts, “Engineering and Industrial Diaspora: Homestead, 1941,” Pittsburgh History 72, no. 1 (1989): 7. Link
27
Associated Press, “Boost Fund to Increase Steel,” Gettysburg Times, June 30, 1945. Link
28
Sabadasz, “Pittsburgh Industrial District,” 16.
30
Earl Latham, “The Politics of Basing Point Legislation,” Law and Contemporary Problems 15, no. 2 (1954): 272. Link
31
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 267–68. Link
Part II — Denial
Chapter 4
Rhapsody of Steel
1
Associated Press, “US Offers Plants Here for Sale,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 20, 1944. Link
2
“Realtors Studying Industry in Relation to Postwar Era,” Reading (PA) Eagle, Aug. 9, 1942. Link
3
“Where We Live: Our Population Shifts South and West; War Spurs Peacetime Trend,” Wall Street Journal, June 4, 1944. Link
4
“US Will Develop 5 Strategic Areas,” Montreal Gazette, Aug. 31, 1941. Link
5
“Defense Plant Capacity Cited,” Pittsburgh Press, Aug. 23, 1940. Link
6
Byron Fairchild and Jonathan Philip Grossman, The Army and Industrial Manpower (Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army, 1959), 102. Link
7
Ralph E. Lapp, “Industrial Dispersion in the United States,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 7, no. 9 (1951): 256–60. Link
8
“Navy Sets Up System to Terminate Contracts; Won’t Cut Buying Now,” Wall Street Journal, July 22, 1944. Link
9
Dale McFeatters, “1944 Proves Year of All Time Records in the Pittsburgh Area,” Pittsburgh Press, Dec. 31, 1944. Link
11
Art Preis, “Historic Battles with Steel Kings Inspires Pickets,” Militant, Feb. 2, 1946, as quoted in Joshua Freeman, Behemoth: A History of the Factory and the Making of the Modern World (W. W. Norton, 2018), 234. Link
12
“United States Steel’s Westward March: A Chain Reaction of Concentration,” Stanford Law Review 1, no. 1 (1948): 108–25. Link
13
Dale McFeatters, “Pittsburgh’s Position as No. 1 Steel Center Menaced, Weir Warns,” Pittsburgh Press, Aug. 7, 1945. Link
14
“National Affairs: Ghost Town,” Time, Oct. 28, 1946. Link
15
T. E. Lloyd, “Pittsburgh Seen Losing Position of World’s Steel Center,” Iron Age, May 16, 1946, 92.
16
Kenneth Austin, “Pittsburgh Expected to Remain Leading Center of Steel Industry,” New York Times, Aug. 25, 1946. Link
17
“Steel Exodus Just Bogey Expert Says,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Aug. 26, 1946. Link
18
“Local Post-War Group Adopts Wide Program—Budget of $315,000 for Study, Research Tentatively Approved,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 17, 1944. Link
19
Dale McFeatters, “Communities Urged to Begin Mapping Post-War Jobs Now,” Pittsburgh Press, May 18, 1944. Link
20
Rachel Balliet Colker, “Gaining Gateway Center: Eminent Domain, Redevelopment, and Resistance,” Pittsburgh History 78, no. 3 (1995): 135. Link
21
Memorandum on Release of Econometric Report to Pittsburgh Newspapers, Oct. 31, 1946, box Z, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association Archives, Oliver Room Archives, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Link
22
Olav Bjerkholt, “Ragnar Frisch and the Foundation of the Econometric Society and Econometrica,” Statistics Norway Research Department, Oct. 1995, https://www.ssb.no/a/histstat/doc/doc_199509.pdf also Robert Loring Allen, Opening Doors: The Life and Work of Joseph Schumpeter (Transaction, 1991), 269.
23
Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (Routledge, 2013), 83.
24
Econometric Institute, “Long Range Outlook for the Pittsburgh Industrial Area,” Feb. 12, 1947, box 3, folder 9, Allegheny Conference Archives, Archive of Industrial Society, Univ. of Pittsburgh Archives. Link
25
Memorandum on Release, 2. Link
26
“Final Report of the Special Committee to Study the Econometric Institute Report,” Dec. 6, 1946, 1, box Y, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association Archives. Link
27
Kemp G. Fuller, Andrew Irwin, and Francis McQuillin, “Report of the Conference Subcommittee Assigned to Review Section I, Chapter 2 of the Econometric Institute Report,” Allegheny Conference on Community Development, Oct. 31, 1946, 3, box Z, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association Archives. Link
28
Econometric Institute, “Long Range Outlook,” 25–27. Link
29
“City Needs Reshaping to Assure Progress, Chamber Survey Shows,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 7, 1946. Link
30
“Econometric Institute, “Long Range Outlook.” Link
31
“Redevelopment Study Revealed for First Time,” Pittsburgh Press, Feb. 14, 1954. Link
32
Benjamin F. Fairless, Some Problems of the Steel Industry in Pittsburgh (U.S. Steel Corp., 1948), 7, 11. Link
33
Associated Press, “Steel Mogul Urges Postwar Liquidation of Federal Industry,” Evening Standard (St. Petersburg, FL), Jan. 21, 1944. Link
34
Robert D. Fletcher, “The Donora Smog Disaster—A Problem in Atmospheric Pollution,” Weatherwise 2, no. 3 (1949): 56. Link
35
Berton Roueché, “The Fog,” New Yorker, Sept. 30, 1950, 33.
36
Devra Lee Davis, When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution (Basic Books, 2002), 18, 29.
37
“U.S. Health Service Moves into Donora to Probe Fatal Smog,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 1, 1948. Link
38
“Tax Bars New Steel Plants, County Warned,” Pittsburgh Press, May 29, 1950. Link
39
“J&L Takes Over Scotch Bottom,” Pittsburgh Press, Nov. 20, 1952.
40
“J&L to Put $25,000,000 on Expansion,” Pittsburgh Press, Oct. 1, 1952. Link
41
W. L. Russell, “J&L Spending in Half Year Doubles Profit,” Pittsburgh Press, Sept. 14, 1948. Link
42
“Moreell Sees Steel Users Moving Here,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 17, 1948. Link
43
McFeatters, “1944 Proves Year of All Time Records in the Pittsburgh Area,” 12. Link
44
U.S. Steel advertisement, New York Times, Jan. 2, 1951. Link
45
Office of the US High Commissioner for Germany Office of Public Affairs, Public Relations Division, APO 757, US Army, “West German Steel Industry,” Information Bulletin, Sept. 1950, 65–71. Link
46
Toshiyasu Ito, “Reconstruction of Hiroshima Industry 1945–1960,” Regional Economic Research 26 (2015): 5n4. Link
47
Thomas E. Mullaney, “Steel: One of the Vital Materials in the Building of the Nation’s Defenses and in Its Civil Economy: One of Spectacular Phased of Steel Making,” New York Times, Sept. 6, 1951. Link
48
“Progress Plan Opens New Era of Operations,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 29, 1954. Link
49
Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry, Bureau of Employment Security, Labor Market Letter, Pittsburgh Area, Office of Commonwealth Libraries, State Library of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg. Link
50
“Pittsburgh Doubtful on Seaway,” Youngstown Vindicator, June 18, 1956. Link
51
Nicolas P. Maffei, “Selling Gleam: Making Steel Modern in Post-War America,” Journal of Design History 26, no. 3 (2013): 304–20.
52
Sara Anne Gooch, “Mediating the Mill: Steel Production in Film” (PhD diss., Univ. of Iowa, 2012), 111.
53
“City Told Co-Operation for All Is Essential to Prosperity,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 9, 1962. Link
54
“Diversification of Industry Mostly Talk,” Beaver Valley Times (Aliquippa, PA), Oct. 30, 1957. Link
55
“U.S. for Shift of Plants to Turnpike Area—Plan of Defense against ABombs,” Pittsburgh Press, Sept. 19, 1948. Link
56
Leland R. Johnson, The Headwaters District: A History of the Pittsburgh District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Pittsburgh District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,1979), 226. Link
57
Benjamin Chinitz, “Contrasts in Agglomeration: New York and Pittsburgh,” American Economic Review 51, no. 2 (1961): 279–89.
58
Frederick Shaw, “Edgar M. Hoover and Raymond Vernon. Anatomy of a Metropolis: The Changing Distribution of People and Jobs Within the New York Metropolitan Area,” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 330, no. 1 (1960): 139. Link
59
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, vol. 3 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 138–39. Link
60
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, 142–43. Link
61
Regional Economic Analysis Policy Group et al., Policy Statement Based on the Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Allegheny Conference on Community Development, 1964), 6.
62
“The Lesson the Steel Strike Taught,” Business Week, Jan. 8, 1960, 104.
63
Benjamin Chinitz, “Pittsburgh: The Anatomy of a Recovery,” Jan. 19, 1965, 4, Papers of Elmer J. Holland, Archives of Industrial Society, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Link
64
Chinitz, “Pittsburgh,” 6. Link
Chapter 5
Disruption
1
Regina Gordin, “Nucor Corporation: A Study on Evolution Toward Strategic Fit” (MA thesis, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 2006), 5–9.
2
John, Stubbles, “The Minimill Story,” AISTech 2006 Proceedings, Cleveland, OH, Oct. 2006, 27, https://www.brimacombecourse.org/pdf/2006_Stubbles.pdf.
3
The Association for Iron & Steel Technology, “Nucor Steel–South Carolina Turns 50,” Steel News, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.aist.org/nucor-steel%E2%80%93south-carolina-turns-50.
4
United States and Richard M. Duke, eds., The United States Steel Industry and Its International Rivals: Trends and Factors Determining International Competitiveness: Staff Report of the Bureau of Economics to the Federal Trade Commission (GPO, 1977), 75.
5
United States and Duke, United States Steel Industry and Its International Rivals, 483. Link
6
Bernard Elbaum, “How Godzilla Ate Pittsburgh: The Long Rise of the Japanese Iron and Steel Industry, 1900–1973,” Social Science Japan Journal 10, no. 2 (2007): 258.
7
United States and Duke, United States Steel Industry and Its International Rivals, 12. Link
8
Pennsylvania, Bureau of Employment Security, Labor Market Letter, Pittsburgh Area, various dates, Hillman Library Storage, Univ. of Pittsburgh.
9
United States and Duke, United States Steel Industry and Its International Rivals, 70. Link
10
Joel B. Dirlam and Hans Mueller, “Import Restraints and Reindustrialization: The Case of the U.S. Steel Industry,” Case Western Journal of International Law 14, no. 3 (1982): 422.
11
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 444n41. Link
12
“Now Included in Records—Mini-Mills to Power 2 Million Steel Tons,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 11, 1970. Link
13
Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail (Harvard Business School Press, 1997), xi.
14
Kenneth Warren, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 311.
15
“U.S. Steel to Widen Realty Operations,” New York Times, Mar. 3, 1969. Link
16
“U.S. Steel Fabricates Rooms for Florida’s Disney World,” Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 11, no. 4 (1971): 53–59. Link
17
George W. Jernstedt and Tom K. Phares, Give the City Back to People: New Mobility Can Make Our Cities a Joy Again, 1st ed. (Cityscope & Mobility, 1994), 44.
18
Morton Coleman, David Houston, and Edward K. Muller, Skybus: Pittsburgh’s Failed Industry Targeting Strategy of the 1960s, rev. ed. (Univ. of Pittsburgh, Center for Industry Studies, 2012), 10. Link
19
Jernstedt and Phares, Give the City Back to People, 46.
20
“Skybus Complete Transit Expressway 1967,” posted Nov. 13, 2011, by doug brendel, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1--s_oTG8jE Link
21
Coleman, Houston, and Muller, “Skybus: Pittsburgh’s Failed Industry Targeting Strategy of the 1960s,” 18. Link
22
Jonathan Williams, “Mellons Out $8.6 Million on Skybus,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 27, 1977. Link
23
“Federal Transit Administration History,” Federal Transit Administration website, May 1, 2025, https://www.transit.dot.gov/about/brief-historymass-transit.
24
Jonathan Williams, “Civic Leaders Constant in Faith in Skybus Plans,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Aug. 20, 1969.
25
Coleman, Houston, and Muller, “Skybus,” 40n79. Link
26
Jernstedt and Phares, Give the City Back to People, 64–65.
27
Coleman, Houston, and Muller, “Skybus,” 40n83. Link
28
Jonathan Williams, “Mayor ‘Detouring’ Plans—PAT Hunts City Depot for Skybus,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 22, 1973. Link
29
“U.S. Funding Assured—PAT’s Early Action Okayed by SPRPC,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 22, 1973. Link
30
Pennsylvania, Bureau of Employment Security, Labor Market Letter.
31
US Department of Labor, “Pittsburgh: A Study of a Static Economic-Area Situation,” Report Prepared for Congressman Elmer J. Holland, Feb. 2, 1968, box 290, Papers of Elmer J. Holland, Archives of Industrial Society, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Link
Chapter 6
Twilight
1
William Allan, “Steel Industry Has Record Year,” Pittsburgh Press, Jan. 18, 1970. Link
2
At the time, he Pittsburgh metropolitan area was considered a fourcounty region consisting of Allegheny, Beaver, Washington, and Westmoreland Counties. See Pennsylvania Dept. of Labor and Industry, Bureau of Employment Security, Labor Market Letter, Pittsburgh Area, Oct. 1953, Office of Commonwealth Records, Pennsylvania State Library, Harrisburg. Link
3
Pennsylvania, Bureau of Employment Security, Labor Market Letter, Pittsburgh Area, 1969, Hillman Library Storage, Univ. of Pittsburgh.
4
United States and Richard M. Duke, eds. The United States Steel Industry and Its International Rivals: Trends and Factors Determining International Competitiveness: Staff Report of the Bureau of Economics to the Federal Trade Commission (GPO, 1977), 70.
5
The National Bureau of Economic Research is considered the arbiter of US business cycle dates. Prior to 1979, the bureau did not issue contemporaneous formal announcements of new business cycle dates defining recessionary periods.
6
Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy, and the Decline of Liberalism (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1998), 223. Link
7
“The Enforceability of the No-Strike and Interest Arbitration Provisions of the Experimental Negotiating Agreement in Federal Courts,” Valparaiso Law Review 12, no. 1 (1977): 57–89.
8
Mary E. Deily, “Wages in the Steel Industry: Take the Money and Run?,” Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society 37, no. 2 (1998): 153–77. Link
9
Stein, Running Steel, Running America, 239. Link
10
Jack Markowitz, “Speer: Steel’s Best Recession Ever,” Pittsburgh PostGazette, May 3, 1975. Link
11
Kenneth Warren, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 299.
12
Byron Yake, “Steel Is Pittsburgh’s Hedge on Recession,” Lewiston Daily Sun, Jan. 27, 1975. Link
13
Deily, “Wages in the Steel Industry,” 153. Link
14
Background Materials RE: Ad Hoc Committee On Economic Development of ComPAC, Mar. 10, 1980, H John Heinz Archives, Carnegie Mellon Univ., https://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/node/105171?search_api_fulltext=%E2%80%9CBackground%20Materials%20RE%3A%20Ad%20 Hoc%20Committee%200n%20Economic%20Development%200f%20 ComPAC%2C%E2%80%9D%20 Link
15
Warren, Big Steel, 2001, 299.
16
Warren, Big Steel, 302; Associated Press, “Steel Officials Optimistic,” St. Joseph (MO) News-Press, Nov. 28, 1977. Link
17
Dennis W. Alexander, “Local Government Action in the Control of Environmental Pollution in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,” Villanova Law Review 16, no. 5 (1971): 906. Link
18
“Interview with William Ruckelshaus,” Frontline, Apr. 21, 2009, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/poisonedwaters/interviews/ruckelshaus.html.
19
On May 18, 1987, the ad appeared in both the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette and the Pittsburgh Press. On the history of the Allegheny County Variance Board, see James Longhurst, Citizen Environmentalists (Tufts Univ. Press, 2012), 112–29. Link
20
Charles O. Jones, Clean Air: The Policies and Politics of Pollution Control (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1978), 11.
21
“About Big Steel’s ‘Mistake,’” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 19, 1976. Link
22
“U.S. Steel Signs Accord to Curb Plant’s Fumes,” New York Times, Oct. 12, 1976; Geoffrey Tomb, “Clairton Coke Accord Reached,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 12, 1976. Link
23
Samuel P. Hays, “Beyond Celebration: Pittsburgh and Its Region in the Environmental Era-Notes of a Participant Observer,” in Devastation and Renewal: An Environmental History of Pittsburgh and Its Region, ed. Joel A. Tarr (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2004).
24
UPI, “Pittsburgh’s Role as Steel Center Diminishing—Speer,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), June 21, 1978. Link
25
Gene Smith, “US Steel Reported Planning Ohio Plant,” New York Times, June 26, 1976. Link
26
“Last City Blast Furnace Shuts,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 22, 1979. Link
27
U.S. Steel had also closed twelve open-hearth blast furnaces in Clairton in 1962, but continued to operate the large coke works on the site.
28
David H. Wollman and Donald R. Inman, Portraits in Steel: An Illustrated History of Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation (Kent State Univ. Press, 1999), 201.
29
Gerald H. Anderson, “The Steel Trigger Price Mechanism,” Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, Economic Commentary, May 17, 1982.
30
Lydia Chavez, “The Rise of Mini-Steel Mills,” New York Times, Sept. 23, 1981. Link
31
Frank Giarratani, Ravi Madhavan, and Gene Gruver, Steel Industry Restructuring and Location (Center for Industry Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 2012), 10–11.
32
Adrian Lee, “How We Almost Lost the Volkswagen Plant,” ObserverReporter (Washington, PA), Jan. 24, 1979. Link
33
UPI, “State’s Offer Sold VW on New Stanton,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), May 29, 1976.
34
William Beaver, “Volkswagen’s American Assembly Plant: Fahrvergnugen Was Not Enough,” Business Horizons, Dec. 1992, 19. Link
35
Terry P. Brown, “Chasing the Rabbit,” Wall Street Journal, Apr. 22, 1976.
36
Ron Chernow, “The Rabbit That Ate Pennsylvania,” Mother Jones, Jan. 1, 1978.
37
Brown, “Chasing the Rabbit.”
38
Chernow, “Rabbit That Ate Pennsylvania,” 20. The full-page ad appeared in the Wall Street Journal on March 1, 1976. Link
39
David Aviel, “Volkswagen’s Investment in the United States: A Pacesetter for Foreign Investment?,” Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 4, no. 2 (1980): 175. Link
40
Associated Press, “No Regrets in Pennsylvania Over VW Deal: Officials Sanguine After Car Maker Jilted Plant,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 2, 1987. Link
41
Jack Markowitz, “How Chrysler Came to New Stanton I: Firm Eyes Western Pennsylvania for Major Growth?,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 4, 1968. Link
42
“Farm Area to Get Plant of Chrysler,” New York Times, Sept. 29, 1968. Link; Jack Markowitz, “How Chrysler Came to New Stanton II—West Penn Pennsy Gets Yesses,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 5, 1968.
43
“Foreign Trade Zone Approved for Pittsburgh,” Pennsylvania International Trademark 5, no. 10 (1977): 8.
44
Beaver, “Volkswagen’s American Assembly Plant,” 21; “VW Unit, Pennsylvania Sign Pact on New Plant,” Wall Street Journal, Sept. 16, 1976.
45
Martin Tolchin and Susan J. Tolchin, Buying into America: How Foreign Money Is Changing the Face of Our Nation (Times Books, 1988), 61.
46
Ira Fine, “Labor Fights to Get VV Plant—Leaders Back New Stanton Incentives,” Pittsburgh Press, July 7, 1976. Link
47
The Federal Role in State Industrial Development Programs (Congressional Budget Office, 1984), 51.
48
Adam M. Zaretsky, “Are States Giving Away the Store? Attracting Jobs Can Be a Costly Adventure,” Regional Economist, Jan. 1994.
49
Yanek Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s (Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2005), 134. Link
50
Jimmy Carter, presidential address, Oct. 24, 1978, transcript available at The American Experience, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-anti-inflation/.
51
Edward Nelson, “The Great Inflation of the Seventies: What Really Happened?,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Jan. 2004, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/great-inflation-seventies-1188.
Part III — Damage
Chapter 7
Démontage
1
David E. Lindsey, Athanasios Orphanides, and Robert H. Rasche, The Reform of October 1979: How It Happened and Why, Finance and Economics Discussion Series (Divisions of Research & Statistics and Monetary Affairs, Federal Reserve Board, 2004), 20.
2
Lindsey, Orphanides, and Rasche, Reform of October 1979, 24. Link
3
Mike Moyle, “Job Rate Sets Record in District,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Feb. 1, 1979. Link
4
“Staying Put,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 30, 1983. Link
5
Carl E. Walsh, “October 6, 1979,” Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco website, Dec. 2004, https://www.frbsf.org/research-and-insights/publications/economic-letter/2004/12/october-6-1979/.
6
GNP was the most commonly cited macroeconomic indicator at the time. In 1990, gross domestic product became more commonly referenced. Both statistics are reported quarterly but represent annualized rates of change.
7
“Quanex, Hunt Join in Tube Mill Project,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 17, 1981. Link
8
John P. Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1988), 139. Link
9
Jennifer Lin, “Falling Star—Drop in Oil, Gas Drilling Means Layoffs in Tube Mills,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 19, 1982. Link
10
Lorna Strauss, “U.S. Steel Posts Higher Profits, Raises Dividend,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jan. 28, 1981. Link
11
Associated Press, “Pittsburgh Steel Business Better,” Youngstown Vindicator, Feb. 16, 1981. Link
12
Steel at the Crossroads: One Year Later (American Iron and Steel Institute, 1981).
13
Marvin Goodfriend, “Inflation Targeting in the United States,” in The Inflation-Targeting Debate, ed. Ben Bernanke and Michael Woodford (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2004), 317.
14
Patricia Moore, “Steel Layoffs: Workers Pick up the Pieces,” Pittsburgh Press, Nov. 8, 1981. Link
15
Jennifer Lin, “Steel Layoffs Rise as Slump Gets Deeper,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 31, 1981. Link
16
Lorna Doubet, “How U.S. Steel Built Its War Chest,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 20, 1981. Link
17
Robert J. Cole, “U.S. Steel Moves to Buy Marathon,” New York Times, Jan. 7, 1982. Link
18
Mark Potts, “Mobil May Seek Marathon Oil via Buying U.S. Steel,” Chicago Tribune, Dec. 10, 1981. Link
19
Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came, 141. Link
20
Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came, 140. Link
21
Michael Workman, “U.S. Steel National Tube Works,” Historic American Engineering Record (National Park Service, Department of the Interior, circa 1990), 4.
22
“U.S. Steel Corp. Said Tuesday It Will Reduce Dividend,” UPI, Oct. 26, 1982, available at the UPI Archives, http://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/10/26/US-Steel-Corp-said-Tuesday-it-will-reduce-dividend/9081404452800/.
23
William H. Wylie, “Steel Industry’s Last Defense Starting to Crack,” Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 19, 1982. Link
24
Dave Mayfield, “Steel Conference Outcry: Imports,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), May 30, 1982. Link
25
Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came, 142.
26
“Changes in the Wind,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 30, 1983.
27
Nicholas Knezevich, “1979 Shocker: District Began Its Slide,” Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 21, 1982. Link
28
“Big Steel Saddled with Big Problems,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Apr. 6, 1982. Link
29
“Final Blast—Last Two Furnaces Leveled at J&L’s Hazelwood Mill,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 16, 1983. Link
30
Tony Locy, “Bottom Falls Out for J&L Workers,” Pittsburgh Press, May 23, 1984. Link
31
Associated Press, “Armco Will Close Pipe Plant; Imports Blamed,” Los Angeles Times, Sept. 28, 1985. Link
32
Associated Press, “U.S. Steel Plans Plate Mill Closing,” New York Times, Oct. 4, 1985. Link
33
“Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel Corporation: Briefing Paper,” Mar. 7, 1979, Digital Collections, Carnegie Mellon Univ., page discontinued as of May 2, 2025, http://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/awweb/awarchive?type=file&item=497749.
34
Associated Press, “Armco Will Close Pipe Plant.” Link
35
James Risen, “The Struggle to Rebuild After Big Steel Moved Out: A Whole Region Was Almost Ruined When the Mills Closed,” Los Angeles Times, Sept. 27, 1989
36
Tom Hundley, “Tough Lessons Taught in VW Plant’s Closing,” Chicago Tribune, July 14, 1988.
37
Edward Nelson, “The Great Inflation of the Seventies: What Really Happened?” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Jan. 2004, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/great-inflation-seventies-1188.
38
Richey Piiparinen, “Midnight in the Rust Belt,” Belt Magazine, Sept. 21, 2013, https://beltmag.com/midnight-in-the-rust-belt/.
39
Bob Dvorchak, “Pittsburgh Talking Sweetly,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Dec. 18, 1985. Link
40
Associated Press, “Pittsburgh Fights to Retain Clark Bar Plant,” New York Times, Dec. 25, 1985. Link
41
James V. Cunningham and P. Martz, eds., Trouble in Electric Valley: Local Leaders Assess the Difficult Future of East Pittsburgh and Turtle Creek (River Communities Project, School of Social Work, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1986), 80.
42
Bob Drogin, “‘We’re Just in Trouble’: Steel Towns’ Mettle Tested as the Industry Staggers,” Los Angeles Times, Aug. 10, 1986.
43
Jim Cunningham and Cathy Cairns, Aliquippa Update: A Pittsburgh Milltown Struggles to Come Back, 1984–86 (River Communities Project, School of Social Work, Univ. of Pittsburgh, Aliquippa Alliance for Unity and Development, Univ. Center for Social and Urban Research, 1986). Link
44
J. Corbett, “A Study of Unemployment in the Mon-Yough Valley and Its Impact on Social and Psychological Functioning,” Mon-Yough Community Mental Health and Mental Retardation Center, McKeesport, PA, July 1980; Felicia L. Mason, “Suicide Rate High in Mon Valley,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 25, 1985. Link
45
Cunningham and Cairns, Aliquippa Update, 30. Link
46
“Valley Towns’ Fortunes Decline Steadily,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 28, 1993.
47
Stefan Lorant, Pittsburgh: The Story of an American City (Authors Edition, 1980), quoted in James P. DeAngelis and Sabina E. Deitrick, “The Regional Economic Development—Bibliography and Data Base (TRED/Biblio) Final Report,” 8, prepared for a Subcommittee of the City of Pittsburgh and Allegheny County Service Consolidation Task Force on Economic Development, Univ. of Pittsburgh, Dec. 1994.
48
Jim McKay, “USW Local Presidents Vote 38–4 to Approve Pact,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jan. 19, 1987.
49
Carey Durkin Treado, “Pittsburgh’s Evolving Steel Legacy and the Steel Technology Cluster,” Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy, and Society 3, no. 1 (2010): 105–20.
50
Frank Giarratani, Ravi Madhavan, and Gene Gruver, “Steel Industry Restructuring and Location,” Center for Industry Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 2012.
51
“Minimills, Maxiprofits: Nucor and Chaparral,” Time, Jan. 24, 1983. Link
52
Steven Rushen, Competitiveness of the Steel Industry in the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. Center for Social and Urban Research, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1996), 5 Link; Stephen Baker, “‘This Is Like My Baby Child That These Guys Have Stolen,’” Bloomberg, June 3, 1996, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/1996-06-02/this-is-like-my-baby-child-that-these-guys-have-stolen.
53
Stephen Ostrander, Great Natural Areas in Western Pennsylvania (Stackpole, 2000), 50.
54
Len Boselovic, “Heard off the Street: Dreams of Steel Minimill Come to End,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sept. 14, 2014.
Chapter 8
Dorothy
1
“Shutdown Prompts Memories,” McKeesport Daily News, undated clipping, Slusher Papers, Heinz History Center Archive, Pittsburgh.
2
Bob Dvorchak, “Dorothy Six,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), May 26, 1984.
3
Peter Bradley, “Labor Dollars Voted to Aide RIDC Startup,” Pittsburgh Press, Jan. 5, 1962. Link
4
Linda S. Wilson, “Preservation Pressed as Mills Topple,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Aug. 4, 1988. Link
5
Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, “Final Report on Steel Historic Site Evaluation,” circa 1988, H. John Heinz Archives, Carnegie Mellon Univ.
6
Joel Sabadasz, “U.S. Steel Duquesne Works,” Historic American Engineering Record (National Park Service, Department of the Interior, 1991), 28–29. Link
7
W. L. Russell, “Duquesne Works Reduces Smoke,” Pittsburgh Press, July 16, 1953. Link
8
C. H. Good, “The Ferro-Manganese Gas Cleaning Installation at Duquesne Works,” Air Repair 4, no. 4 (1955): 183. Link
9
Mary E. Deily, “Investment Activity and the Exit Decision,” Review of Economics and Statistics 70, no. 4 (1988): 595–602.
10
“Big Project Slated for Duquesne; Largest Setup in Area Due for Completion in ’62,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 28, 1960. Link
11
William Allan, “World’s Biggest Blast Furnace Keeps Hiroshima Skies Red,” Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 21, 1968. Link
12
Associated Press, “US Steel May Close 3 Plants,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Dec. 9, 1983. Link
13
Michael Schroeder, “USW Local Eyes Duquesne Works Buyout,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 10, 1983. Link
14
Earl Brown, “Steelworkers Volunteer Time, Money to Save Vintage Furnace,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Dec. 19, 1984.
15
Mike Stout, “Remembering Pittsburgh,” Unbound: Harvard Journal of the Legal Left 7, no. 45 (2011): 53; Dana Scarton, “Workers Watch Mill from Trailer Outpost,” Pittsburgh Press, Feb. 15, 1985. Link
16
Associated Press, “Jackson Urges Employee-Union Takeover,” Washington Observer-Reporter (Washington, PA), Jan. 19, 1985. Link
17
Jim McKay, “Roderick Doubtful About Duquesne,” Pittsburgh PostGazette, Jan. 30, 1985. Link
18
Staughton Lynd, “Why We Opposed the Buyout at Weirton Steel,” Labor Research Review 1, no. 6 (1985): 42. Link
19
Robert E. Deans Jr., “The Cinderella Steel Town That Found Its Princes at Home,” Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 19, 1984, 34.
20
John D. Russell, “Lessons from the Recent Failure of Weirton Steel’s ESOP,” Labor Notes, Apr. 30, 2004, http://www.labornotes.org/2004/04/lessons-recent-failure-weirton-steels-esop.
21
Weirton Steel remained in operation as an ESOP until May 2003, when the firm declared bankruptcy.
22
National Academy of Engineering et al., The Competitive Status of the U.S. Steel Industry: A Study of the Influences of Technology in Determining International Industrial Competitive Advantage (Univ. of Michigan Books on Demand, 1996), 51.
23
Kenneth Warren, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001 (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 52.
24
Warren, Big Steel, 303.
25
Mike Mahoney, “2-Prong Attack Is Mounted,” Youngstown Vindicator, July 20, 1979.
26
Christina Rouvalis, “Crumbs, 1,200 Protesters Jam East Liberty Rally to Save Nabisco Plant,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 17, 1982. Link
27
Staughton Lynd, “Remembering Local 1330,” Unbound: Harvard Journal of the Legal Left 7, no. 45 (2011): 49. Link
28
Irwin M. Marcus, “An Experiment in Reindustrialization: The Tri-State Conference on Steel and the Creation of the Steel Valley Authority,” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of MidAtlantic Studies 54, no. 3 (1987): 194. Link
29
Staughton Lynd, Living Inside Our Hope: A Steadfast Radical’s Thoughts on Rebuilding the Movement (ILR Press, 1997), 243n101.
30
Peter Perl, “‘Dorothy Six’ Is Hope of Pennsylvania Steelworkers Coalition,” Washington Post, Apr. 26, 1985. Link
31
David Roderick to Allegheny County Commissioners, Apr. 15, 1985, Archive of Industrial Society, Tri-State Conference Archives, Archives & Special Collections, University of Pittsburgh Library System.
32
Statement of Eugene Keilin, General Partner—Lazard Freres & Co., circa 1986, box 16, Tri-State Conference on Manufacturing Records 1982–93, Archives & Special Collections, Univ. of Pittsburgh Library System.
33
“Unions and US Steel Agree: Furnace Not Worth Saving,” New York Times, Jan. 9, 1986. Link
34
David Morse, “Surrender Dorothy,” In These Times, Feb. 19, 1986, 8–9.
35
Jim McKay, “Factory Fixers,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 12, 1988.
36
Peter K. Eisinger, The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State: State and Local Economic Development Policy in the United States (Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 328.
37
Philip Shapira, “Industrial Restructuring and Economic Development Strategies in a Japanese Steel Town: The Case of Kitakyushu,” Town Planning Review 61, no. 4 (1990): 405; Mi-Gyeung Yeum, “Corporate Governance Regimes, Industrial Restructuring, and Community Responses: A Comparison Between Kitakyushu and Pittsburgh,” Asian Perspective 28, no. 2 (2004): 157.
38
Thomas Jäger, “Die verhinderten Free Riders von Rheinhausen,” Kölner Zeitschrift Für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 42, no. 1 (1990): 81.
39
Thomas Rommelspacher, “Krupp-Rheinhausen: A Conflict over the Consequences of Decline in the West German Steel Industry,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 12, no. 4 (1988): 627–35.
40
Judith Stilgenbauer, “Landschaftspark Duisburg Nord [EDRA/Places Awards],” Places Journal 17, no. 3 (2005): 6–9.
41
Remaking the Monongahela Valley (Regional Urban Design Assistance Team, a service of the American Institute of Architects, 1988), 80. Link
42
Diana Nelson Jones, “Blasting Out of the Past,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 12, 1995.
43
Dan Hopey, “Grant Offers Mon Valley Revitalized Future,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 13, 1999. Link
44
Staughton Lynd, “The Genesis of the Idea of a Community Right to Industrial Property in Youngstown and Pittsburgh, 1977–1987,” Journal of American History 74, no. 3 (1987): 939; Local 1330, United Steel Workers of America et al., Plaintiffs-appellants. v. United States Steel Corporation, Defendant-appellee, 631 F.2d 1264 (6th Cir. 1980), argued June 18, 1980, decided July 25, 1980.
45
Linda S. Wilson, “Union Hall Converted to Care Home,” Pittsburgh PostGazette, Feb. 5, 1987. Link
46
Bill Steigerwald, “Steel’s Decline Cripped Valley,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 28, 1989. Link
47
Mark Belko, “Old Mills a Bonanza in Scrap, Equipment,” Pittsburgh PostGazette, Aug. 19, 1988. Link
Chapter 9
Diaspora
1
Mary Ann Lickteig, “Chance at Police Jobs in Texas Attracts Jobless Steelworkers,” Pittsburgh Press, June 27, 1985. Link
2
Christopher Briem, “How Many People Left Pittsburgh During the 1980s?,” Pittsburgh Economic Quarterly, June 2014, 4. Link
3
Bob Gradeck, The Root of Pittsburgh’s Population Drain (Carnegie Mellon Univ., Center for Economic Development, Nov. 2003), 3.
4
“Stable Population Forecast for Area,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 2, 1976. Link
5
Committee for Progress in Allegheny Committee (ComPAC), Background Materials—Exhibit D, 1980, 2, box 91, folder 28, H. John Heinz Archives, Carnegie Mellon Univ., https://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/node/128473. Link
6
Norman Robertson, “Forecast of the Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Economy for the Next Ten Years,” circa 1978, Heinz Archives.
7
“Staying Put,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 30, 1983, 3. Link
8
Douglas Root, “Down and Up, Population Here Continues to Decline, but Crime Rate Is Safest for Big Cities,” Pittsburgh Press, July 31, 1985. Link
9
Ramit Plushnick-Masti, “After 250 Years, Pittsburgh Remains an Anomaly,” USA Today, Nov. 26, 2008.
10
Sally Kalson, “City No Champion for Single Women,” Pittsburgh PostGazette, Nov. 28, 1984. Link
11
Christopher Briem, “Outmigration Steady in Region,” Pittsburgh Economic Quarterly, June 2000, 2. Link
12
Robert W. Bednarzik and Joseph Szalanski, An Examination of the Work History of Pittsburgh Steelworkers, Who Were Displaced and Received PubliclyFunded Retraining in the Early 1980s, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), 2012, 11, http://repec.iza.org/dp6429.pdf. Link
13
Arnold Katz and Frederick Tannery, “Adjusting to Structural Change: A Profile of the Work Experiences and Earnings of Dislocated Workers in the Pittsburgh Region: 1979–1986” (Univ. of Pittsburgh, Economics Department and Univ. Center for Social and Urban Research, 1988), 24, author’s collection.
14
Linda Babcock, Mary Ellen Benedict, and John Engberg, “Pittsburgh Labor Market Adjustments in the 1980s: Who Gained and Who Lost?,” Journal of Urban Affairs 20, no. 1 (2016): 66.
15
Frederick Tannery and Patricia Beeson, “The Impact of Industrial Restructuring on Earnings Inequality: The Decline of Steel and Earnings in Pittsburgh,” Growth and Change 35, no. 1 (2004): 21–41.
16
Briem, “How Many People Left Pittsburgh During the 1980s?,” 5. Link
17
Lena Andrews, Destination Pittsburgh (Center for Economic Development, Carnegie Mellon Univ., 2003), 1.
18
Frederick Tannery, “Labor Market Adjustments to Structural Change: Comparisons between Allegheny County and the Rest of Pennsylvania: 1979– 1987,” Working Paper (Economic Policy Institute, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1991). Link
19
Peter A. Morrison, A Demographic Overview of Metropolitan Pittsburgh (RAND Corporation, 2004), 3. Link
20
Douglas A. Fisher, Steel Serves the Nation 1901–1950: The Fifty Year Story of United States Steel (U.S. Steel Corporation, 1951), 89. Link
21
Ronald Reagan, “Remarks at the National Conference on the Dislocated Worker in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,” Apr. 6, 1983, available at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Project, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-national-conference-the-dislocated-worker-pittsburgh-pennsylvania.
22
Steven R. Weisman, “Reagan Jeered By 4,000 Protesters on Visit to Pittsburgh Job Forum,” New York Times, Apr. 7, 1983.
23
25
Associated Press, “People in the News,” Pittsburgh Press, Apr. 18, 1983.
26
“Around the Nation; Man Who Gave Resume to Reagan Gives Up Job,” New York Times, July 4, 1983.
27
Associated Press, “Kennedy, Holland Talk Automation; Pittsburgher Gives First Data on Effects of Automation,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 16, 1960. Link
28
Gladys Roth Kremen, “MDTA: The Origins of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962,” US Department of Labor, 1974, available at http://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/history/mono-mdtatext.
29
David E. Nye, America’s Assembly Line (MIT Press, 2015), 166.
30
Robert Guttman, “Job Training Partnership Act; New Help for the Unemployed,” Monthly Labor Review, Mar. 1983, 3.
31
Job Training Partnership Act—Inadequate Oversight Leaves Program Vulnerable to Waste, Abuse and Mismanagement (US General Accounting Office, 1991).
32
“Uncertainty Tempers Workers’ Confidence in Retraining Efforts,” Pittsburgh Press, Apr. 4, 1984. Link
33
Paul Maryniak, “‘Real Help’ Elusive in Job Training Partnership,” Pittsburgh Press, Apr. 13, 1986.
34
Maryniak, “‘Real Help’ Elusive in Job Training Partnership”; also James Bovard, Cato Institute Policy Analysis No. 77: The Failure of Federal Job Training (Cato Institute, 1986).
35
Maryniak, “‘Real Help’ Elusive in Job Training Partnership,” 1.
36
“Uncertainty Tempers Workers’ Confidence in Retraining Efforts,” 4. Link
37
Ronald Reagan, “Statement on the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act,” Aug. 2, 1988, Peters and Woolley, American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-worker-adjustment-and-retraining-notification-act
38
Thomas K. Glennan et al., Education, Employment, and the Economy: An Examination of Work-Related Education in the Pittsburgh Metropolitan Area (RAND Corporation, 1989), vi. Link
39
“Education, Training, and Retraining Issues,” in Computerized Manufacturing Automation: Employment, Education, and the Workplace (US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1984), 253. Link
40
Bednarzik and Szalanski, Examination of the Work History of Pittsburgh Steelworkers. Link
41
Morton Inger, Community-Based Strategies for Work-Related Education, NCEE Brief, no. 10 (National Center for Education and Employment, US Department of Education, 1990).
42
Barnaby J. Feder, “Struggle to Survive in Town That Steel Forgot,” New York Times, Apr. 27, 1993.
43
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, vol. 3 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 284.
44
Elizabeth Dole to John Heinz, Mar. 30, 1989, box 112, folder 12, Heinz Archives; US Department of Labor, Coordination of Housing and Job Training Services: A Review of Best Practices in 12 Cities, Research and Evaluation Report Series 92-D (US Department of Labor, 1992), 11–18. Link
45
Econometric Institute, “Long Range Outlook for the Pittsburgh Industrial Area,” Feb. 12, 1947, box 3, folder 9, Allegheny Conference Archives, Archive of Industrial Society, Univ. of Pittsburgh Archives. Link
46
Melvin K. Bers, “Labor Force Participation in the Pittsburgh Standard Metropolitan Area,” Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region, Working Paper No. 2 (Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, 1960), 9.
47
Bers, “Labor Force Participation in the Pittsburgh Standard Metropolitan Area,” 33.
48
John H. Hinshaw, Steel and Steelworkers: Race and Class Struggle in Twentieth-Century Pittsburgh (State Univ. of New York Press, 2002), 89; Maurine Weiner Greenwald, “Women and Class in Pittsburgh, 1850–1920,” in City at the Point: Essays on the Social History of Pittsburgh, ed. Samuel P. Hays (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), 28.
49
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, 33.
50
Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, 413 U.S. 376 (1973).
51
“Day Care Toddles Here, Despite Need,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jan. 17, 1982. Link
52
Sabina Deitrick and Christopher Briem, “Gender Wage Disparity in the Pittsburgh Region,” American Behavioral Scientist 53, no. 2 (2009): 239–60.
53
Data on employment by gender available from the Department of the Census, Longitudinal Household-Employer Dynamics program, Quarterly Workforce Indicators, online at https://lehd.ces.census.gov/data/.
54
Dan Fitzpatrick, “Region Is Portrayed as a ‘Cool’ Place to Live,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 19, 2000. Link
55
Richard L. Florida, “Competing in the Age of Talent: Environment, Amenities, and the New Economy,” Jan. 2000, author’s collection. Link
56
Florida, “Competing in the Age of Talent,” 50. Link
57
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, 288. Link
58
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, 286. Link
59
Regional Economic Revitalization Initiative, Robert Mehrabian, and Allegheny Conference on Community Development, eds., The Greater Pittsburgh Region: Working Together to Compete Globally (Initiative, 1994). Link
Part IV — Beyond
Chapter 10
Beyond Smokestack Chasing
1
William H. Wylie, "Industry to Spread 'The Pittsburgh Story,'" Pittsburgh Press, May 22, 1981; Penn's Southwest Association, Dynamic Pittsburgh: It's a Vital, Vibrant, Historic, Sporting, Bright, Breakthrough, Resourceful Place to Live and Work (Penn's Southwest Association, 1981), available in Historic Pittsburgh Book Collection, Univ. of Pittsburgh, https://digital.library.pitt.edu/islandora/object/pitt:31735051651598.
2
Committee for Progress in Allegheny Committee (ComPAC) and Pennsylvania Economy League, "Promoting Economic Development in Allegheny County," July 28, 1977, 27, H. John Heinz Archives, Carnegie Mellon Univ., https://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/node/201650?search_api_fulltext=compac%20and%201977. Link
3
Charlie Kelly, "Panel to Map Region's Economy," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 23, 1981. Link
4
Michael Schroeder and Barbara White Stack, "Game Plan: Allegheny Conference Strategy Eschews 'High-Tech Fix,'" Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 16, 1982. Link
5
"Fortune 500: A Database of 50 Years of FORTUNE's List of America's Largest Corporations—1980 Full List," available at CNNMoney, accessed May 8, 2025, https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500_archive/full/1980/. Link
6
Associated Press, "Loss of Gulf Would Be Costly in Pittsburgh," Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Mar. 8, 1984. Link
7
Schroeder and Stack, "Game Plan," 19. Link
8
Schroeder and Stack, "Game Plan," 35. Link
9
Douglas Root, "Business Leaders Here Map Economic Rescue," Pittsburgh Press, Nov. 16, 1982. Link
10
Roger S. Ahlbrandt, "A Cry for Leadership," prepared for a presentation at the Joint Ventures in Housing and Economic Development Conference, cosponsored by US Department of Housing and Urban Development and ACTION-Housing, Inc., Pittsburgh, Oct. 23, 1984. Link
11
Univ. of Pittsburgh, Recommendations for Southwestern Pennsylvania's Regional Development Strategy for the 1980s and 1990s: From a Conference June 1–3, 1983 (Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1983). Link
12
Allegheny Conference on Community Development, ed., A Strategy for Growth: An Economic Development Program for the Pittsburgh Region: A Report (Allegheny Conference on Community Development, 1984). Link
13
Ellen M. Perlmutter and Cynthia Piechowiak, "Power in Pittsburgh—Growth Strategy Collides with Changed Times," Pittsburgh Press, Nov. 15, 1987. Link
14
City of Pittsburgh et al., Strategy 21: Pittsburgh/Allegheny Economic Development Strategy to Begin the 21st Century: A Proposal to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (City of Pittsburgh, 1985). Link
15
City of Pittsburgh et al., Strategy 21. Link
16
Clyde Mitchell-Weaver, "Public–Private Partnerships, Innovation Networks and Regional Development in Southwestern Pennsylvania," Canadian Journal of Regional Science 15, no. 2 (1992): 275. Link
17
Alberta M. Sbragia, "Pittsburgh's 'Third Way': The Nonprofit Sector as a Key to Urban Regeneration," in Leadership and Urban Regeneration: Cities in North American and Europe, ed. Dennis R. Judd and Michael Parkinson (Sage, 1990), 51–68.
18
Jonathan Williams, "Estimated Costs: $200 Million—Commissioners Hail Airport Growth Plan," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 9, 1969. Link
19
William Pade, "Cautious Nod Given Airport Facelifting," Pittsburgh Press, Aug. 10, 1967. Link
20
Associated Press, "Greater Pitt Expansion Announced," Observer-Reporter (Washington, PA), Nov. 10, 1978.
21
Al Donalson, "Greater Pitt Project Cut $119 Million," Pittsburgh Press, Apr. 27, 1982; Jim Wilhelm, "Airport Price Tag Too High," Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Mar. 12, 1982.
22
Chet Wade, "USAir: No New Terminal Needed," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 25, 1984. Link
23
Wade, "USAir," 4. Link
24
Ed Blazina, "USAir Insisting on More Funds, Foerster Says," Pittsburgh Press, Feb. 6, 1986. Link
25
P. J. Boyle, "Terminal Dilemma—To Land a Slice of 21st-Century Pie, County May Have To Wing It," Pittsburgh Press, July 1, 1984. Link
26
Ed Blazina, "State's Airport Funding Plan Lauded," Pittsburgh Press, July 2, 1986. Link
27
Bernie Kohn, "Alternate Funding Sought for Airport," Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 6, 1987. Link
28
Mark Belko, "Biggest Tenant Makes Commitment to New Terminal," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 10, 1988. Link
29
"Finance/New Issues; Allegheny County Offering of Airport Revenue Bonds," New York Times, July 21, 1988. Link
30
Michel Marriott, "Pittsburgh Builds Airport of Future Now," New York Times, Nov. 12, 1991. Link
31
"Press Release: 1986–87 Budget Proposal Will Include a Renaissance Communities Program," Jan. 29, 1986, box 169, folder 1, Dick Thornburgh Papers, ser. 11, Governor of Pennsylvania, 1979–89, Univ. of Pittsburgh Library System, also online at http://digital.library.pitt.edu/islandora/object/pitt%3Aais9830.11.02.1801 Dieterich-Ward, "Mines, Mills and Malls: Regional Development in the Steel Valley" (PhD diss., Univ. of Michigan, 2006), 336n114.
32
UPI, "Thornburg Signs Economic Package," Pittsburgh Press, July 9, 1986. Link
33
Linda S. Wilson, "Some Officials Question Study Team's Suggestions," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 3, 1988.
34
Jim McKay, "Decline of Industry Here Sets Stage for Rebirth, Fed Study Says," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 1, 1987; Annual Report 1986 (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, 1987), 18. Link
35
"Editorial: Dreams in the Mon Valley," Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 3, 1988. Link
36
Regional Economic Revitalization Initiative (Pittsburgh, PA), Mehrabian, and Allegheny Conference on Community Development (PA), The Greater Pittsburgh Region (Regional Economic Revitalization Initiative, 1994), 8. Link
37
Committee to Prepare Allegheny County for the 21st Century, Preparing Allegheny County for the 21st Century: A Report to the Allegheny County Board of Commissioners (Pennsylvania Economy League, 1996), 4. Link
38
Steve Massey, "Reviving Region's Economy," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 7, 1993.
39
"Developing a Unified Approach," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 8, 1995.
40
Southwestern Pennsylvania Strategic Investment Partnership, Investing in the Future: Strategies for Strengthening Southwestern Pennsylvania's Regional Core and Restoring Its Manufacturing Base, 1995, copy in Main Library—Pennsylvania Department, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.
41
Steve Rushen, "Competitiveness of the Steel Industry in the Pittsburgh Region," Univ. Center for Social and Urban Research, Univ. of Pittsburgh, July 1996, 22. Link
42
Raymond R. Christman, "Pittsburgh Can Make It," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Aug. 27, 1995. Link
43
Karen Kovatch, "SPIRC Spars with Agencies over Funding—Ben Franklin, Pitt Centers Get Less for Manufacturing Aid Program," Pittsburgh Business Times, Feb. 3, 1997. Link
44
Al Haas, "End of the Line for PA's WV Plant," Philadelphia Inquirer, July 14, 1988.
45
Pamela Gaynor, "Incentives Race Among States Is Cooling Off," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 4, 1991. Link
46
Christopher Briem, "Recent Trends in Manufacturing Employment," Pittsburgh Economic Quarterly, June 2009, 4.
47
Reuters, "LTV Plans to Close Coke Plant in Pittsburgh," New York Times, July 15, 1997. Link
48
Tom Barnes, "Close Look at a Coke Plant—Officials Urge Sun Coke to Build Its $350 Million Facility in Hazelwood," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 31, 1998. Link
49
Tom Barnes, "Sun Coke Plant Sets a Shining Example," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Aug. 2, 1998. Link
50
Cliff I. Davidson et al., "Soiling Patterns on a Tall Limestone Building: Changes over 60 Years," Environmental Science & Technology 34, no. 4 (2000): 560. Link
51
Joel A. Tarr and Denise Di Pasquale, "The Mill Town in the Industrial City: Pittsburgh's Hazelwood," Urbanism Past & Present 7, no. 1 (1982): 10.
52
Stephen Piper et al., Odor Study and Engineering Evaluation of the LTV Steel Company Coke Plant in the Hazelwood Area of Pittsburgh, a Report for the Allegheny County Health Department, Bureau of Air Pollution Control (Alliance Technologies Corporation, Apr. 1989), table 2–5, available in Pennsylvania Department, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Link
53
Walter Goldburg, "The Proposed Non-Recovery Coke Plant in Hazelwood," Group Against Smog and Pollution website, accessed Jan. 10, 2012, available via Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20141002205718/http://gasp-pgh.org/projects/past-projects-2/ltv-hazelwood-news/the-proposed-nonrecovery-coke-plant-in-hazelwood/.
54
U.S. v. LTV Steel Company, Inc. (W.D.PA. 2001).
55
Cindi Lash, "Neighbors, City Clash at Forum on Coke Plant," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Aug. 6, 1998. Link
Chapter 11
How Now Brown Town?
1
"Monessen Steel Works," Historic American Engineering Record (National Park Service, Department of the Interior, n.d.). Link
2
"Wheeling-Pittsburgh to Spend $140 on Two New Casters," Pittsburgh Press, June 26, 1981. Link
3
"Wheeling to Close Rail Mill," New York Times, Dec. 25, 1986. Link
4
Peter B. King, "Hollywood Turns to Monessen," Pittsburgh Press, Oct. 29, 1986. Link
5
D'Appolonia, "Environmental Remediation of Former Steel Manufacturing Site," n.d., ContenTree, https://www.contentree.com/caseStudy/environmental-remediation-of-former-steel-manufacturing-site_62957.
6
"ArcelorMittal Holdings Idles Monessen Coke Plant, lays off 93," Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, May 6, 2009. Link
7
Ramit Plushnick-Masti, "Monessen Now Famous for Vacancy, not Industry," Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, May 5, 2009. Link
8
"About ArcelorMittal Monessen," ArcelorMittal, June 2018, available via Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20160418214842if_/http://usa.arcelormittal.com:80/globalassets/arcelormittal-usa/our-operations/2015-updated-fact-sheets/5184-monessen.pdf.
9
Binyamin Appelbaum, "Struggles in a Steel Town Highlighted by Donald Trump," New York Times, July 4, 2016. Link
10
Agis Salpukas, "LTV's Steel Operations Prospering After Merger," New York Times, Nov. 23, 1979. Link
11
Andrew Blum, "J&L Department Closing Inevitable, but No Disaster, Parent Firms," UPI Archives, Nov. 19, 1980, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1980/11/19/JL-department-closing-inevitable-but-no-disaster-parent-firms/4700343458000/.
12
"Council Urges City to Purchase J&L's Property in Hazelwood," Pittsburgh Press, May 19, 1981. Link
13
Lorna Doubet, "J&L Sells Closed Mill to Private Developer," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 16, 1981. Link
14
Jane-Ellen Rosenberger, "URA May Buy J&L Site for High-Tech Park," Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 18, 1983. Link
15
Pittsburgh Technology Center—Final Land Development Plan (Urban Redevelopment Authority of Pittsburgh and Regional Industrial Development Corporation of Southwestern Pennsylvania, 1989), 3.
16
City of Pittsburgh et al., Strategy 21: Pittsburgh/Allegheny Economic Development Strategy to Begin the 21st Century: A Proposal to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (City of Pittsburgh, 1985), 3B. Link
17
Joel A. Tarr, "Pittsburgh and the Manufactured Gas Industry," Pittsburgh Engineer (Winter 2006): 14. Link
18
Steve Massey, "Union Switch Move Sends a Signal," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 4, 1993. Link
19
"Tax-Increment Financing Successful, City Data Indicate," Pittsburgh Tribune Review, May 18, 2008.
20
"Park Corp. History," Funding Universe, accessed May 9, 2025, http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/park-corp-history/.
21
Allegheny County Department of Economic Development, Allegheny County Tax Increment Financing Program Project Evaluation 2015 (Allegheny County Economic Development, 2015), https://www.alleghenycounty.us/files/assets/county/v/1/government/economic-development/documents/lerta-amp-tifs/tif-program-evaluation-2015.pdf.
22
Hatch Associates and Arthur D. Little, Inc., Steel Retention Study (County of Allegheny [PA] Department of Planning, 1988), author's collection. Link
23
Tom Barnes, "City Seeking Riverfront 'Land Bank,'" Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 16, 1994.
24
Klaus R. Kunzmann, "Creative Brownfield Redevelopment: The Experience of the IBA Emscher Park Initiative in the Ruhr in Germany," in Recycling the City: The Use and Reuse of Urban Land, ed. Rosalind Greenstein and Yesim Sungu-Eryilmaz (Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2004), 4–5.
25
Kunzmann, "Creative Brownfield Redevelopment," 5.
26
Henry S. Prellwitz, "A Mineralogical and Geochemical Study of the Nine Mile Run Slag Area, Squirrel Hill, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" (PhD diss., Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1998), 4. Link
27
Chriss Swaney, "Houses Are to Replace a Pittsburgh Slag Heap," New York Times, Jan. 28, 2001.
28
Nicki Puit, "Guide to the Nine Mile Run Greenway Project Records, 1945–2005 AIS.2006.19A," Digital Collections, Univ. of Pittsburgh Library System, accessed May 9, 2025, https://digital.library.pitt.edu/islandora/object/pitt%3AUS-PPiU-ais200619a/from_search/4b4fb7a17096a1a509c15e77340df864-3.-3.
29
Bernard D. Goldstein et al., Ensuring Environmental Health in Postindustrial Cities: Workshop Summary (National Academies Press, 2003), 39. Link
30
Charles Bartsch, Analysis of Pennsylvania's Brownfields Program (Northeast Midwest Institute, 2003), 9.
31
Bartsch, "Analysis of Pennsylvania's Brownfields Program," 10.
32
James T. Hathaway, "Geographical Dynamics of Environmental Service Firms at Metropolitan and National Scales in the United States: The Case of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania," Urbani Izziv 23 (2012): S107–16.
33
Edward K. Muller, "River City," in Devastation and Renewal: An Environmental History of Pittsburgh and Its Region, ed. Joel A. Tarr (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2003), 41–63.
34
A Master Plan for the Development of Riverfronts and Hillsides in the City of Pittsburgh: An Analysis of Their Best Possible Uses, For the Enhancement of the City, and the Enjoyment of Its Citizens (City of Pittsburgh Dept. of Parks and Recreation, 1959), dedication, 506.
35
H. R. Preston, Monongahela River Basin Aquatic Biology: Part 1. Fish Population Studies of the Monongahela River (US Environmental Protection Agency, Wheeling Field Office, 1974), 3.
36
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 439n9. Link
37
Mark Shelton, "The Prince Comes to Pittsburgh," Pittsburgh Magazine, Mar. 1988.
38
Remaking Cities: Proceedings of the 1988 International Conference in Pittsburgh (American Institute of Architects, 1988), 52.
39
Sherie Mershon and Tim Palucka, National Energy Technology Laboratory: A Century of Innovation (U.S. Department of Energy, 2010), 52.
40
Bernard D. Goldstein et al., Ensuring Environmental Health in Postindustrial Cities: Workshop Summary (National Academies Press, 2003), 21–22. Link
41
"How Now Brown Town?," Economist, Sept. 14, 2006, http://www.economist.com/node/7914950.
Chapter 12
Energy Burgh
1
Robert C. Milici et al., National Assessment of Oil and Gas Fact Sheet: Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Resources of the Appalachian Basin Province (US Geological Survey, 2002). [Note: only 3 percent of the estimated undiscovered unconventional gas was in the Marcellus Shale.] Link
2
Michael Quenton Morton, "Unlocking the Earth—A Short History of Hydraulic Fracturing," GEO ExPro, Dec. 9, 2013, https://archives.datapages.com/data/geo-expro-magazine/010/010006/pdfs/86.htm.
3
Michael Shellenberger and Ted Nordhaus, "A Boom in Shale Gas? Credit the Feds.," Washington Post, Dec. 16, 2011. Link
4
Jeff Ventura, Ray Walker Jr., and Greg Davis, "The Discovery of the Marcellus Shale Play," Pittsburgh Engineer (Winter 2013), 18. Link
5
Seamus McGraw, The End of Country: Dispatches from the Frack Zone (Random House, 2013), 54.
6
Kristin M. Carter et al., "Unconventional Natural Gas Resources in Pennsylvania: The Backstory of the Modern Marcellus Shale Play," Environmental Geosciences 18, no. 4 (2011): 229. Link
7
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 251. Link
8
David A. Waples, The Natural Gas Industry in Appalachia: A History from the First Discovery to the Tapping of the Marcellus Shale, 2nd ed. (McFarland, 2012), 47.
9
America's Industrial Heritage Project et al., Coal and Coke Resource Analysis: Western Pennsylvania, Northern West Virginia (US Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1992), 36. Link
10
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, 228. Link
11
Walter H. Voskuil, "Coke: A Key Industrial Material," Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 22, no. 4 (1946): 343. Link
12
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, 229–36. Link
13
"Report of the Conference Sub-Committee Assigned to Review Section III, Chapter XI Wages and Cost of Living of the Econometric Institute Report," Allegheny Conference on Community Development, Oct. 31, 1946, box Z, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association Archives, Oliver Room, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Link
14
"Biggest Story in the History of Coal," Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 25, 1947. Link
15
W. L. Russell, "Gigantic New Concern in Prospect, Bringing New Era for District," Pittsburgh Press, Mar. 25, 1947. Link
16
John J. Kane and George Rankin Jr., Your Future in Allegheny County (North River Press, 1947), 42. Link
17
"Sub-Zero Wave May Continue Until Tuesday," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Feb. 9, 1948. Link
18
Don Ball, The Pennsylvania Railroad, 1940s–1950s (W. W. Norton, 1986), 30. Link
19
Russell, "Gigantic New Concern in Prospect," 1. Link
20
"Leaders of City Given View of New Coal Plan," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 26, 1947. Link
21
"Leaders of City Given View of New Coal Plan," 7. Link
22
"100 Years with Coal Age," Coal Age News, Sept. 14, 2012, 4, https://www.coalage.com/features/100-years-with-coal-age/4/.
23
Joel A. Tarr, "The Changing Face of Pittsburgh: A Historical Perspective," in Ensuring Environmental Health in Postindustrial Cities, ed. Bernard D. Goldstein et al. (National Academies Press, 2003), 19; Maury Klein, A Call to Arms: Mobilizing America for World War II (Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2013), 499; David A. Waples, The Natural Gas Industry in Appalachia, 173.
24
Dudley Dillard, "Big Inch Pipe Lines and the Monopoly Competition in the Petroleum Industry," Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 20, no. 2 (1944): 118. Link
25
"War Emergency Pipeline," Historic American Engineering Record (National Park Service, Department of the Interior), 23. Link
26
Dillard, "Big Inch Pipe Lines," 120n. Link
27
Joel A. Tarr and Karen Clay, "Pittsburgh as an Energy Capital," in Energy Capitals: Local Impact, Global Influence, ed. Joseph A. Pratt, Martin V. Melosi, and Kathleen A. Brosnan (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 2014), 24. Link
28
E. E. Kintner, "Admiral Rickover's Gamble," Atlantic, Jan. 1959, 31–35.
29
Jack M. Holl, Richard G. Hewlett, and Ruth R. Harris, Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96 (Univ. of Illinois Press, 1997), 70.
30
William R. Beaver, "Duquesne Light and Shippingport: Nuclear Power Is Born in Western Pennsylvania," Western Pennsylvania History 70, no. 4 (1987): 346. Link
31
Beaver, "Duquesne Light and Shippingport," 344–45, 348. Link
32
Thomas L. Neff and Henry D. Jacoby, "Supply Assurance in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle," Working Paper No. MITEL:79–007WP (MIT Energy Laboratory, Feb. 1979), 27.
33
Raymond Pikna, "The Uranium Cartel Saga—Yellowcake and Act of State: What Will Be Their Eventual Fate," Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 12, no. 3 (1980): 592. Link
34
Steve Massey, "Who Killed Westinghouse? Chapter 2: Sue Me, Sue You Blues," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 3, 1998. Link
35
Pikna, "Uranium Cartel Saga," 593. Link
36
Douglas Martin, "Suit Ended on Supplies of Uranium," New York Times, Jan. 30, 1981. Link
37
Beaver, "Duquesne Light and Shippingport," 344. Link
38
See chapter 7 for more on the minimill Worldclass Inc. proposed.
39
U.S. Steel Corporation, "Comments of United States Steel Corporation," Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission website, June 15, 2006, https://www.puc.pa.gov/PcDocs/616283.pdf.
40
Carter et al., "Unconventional Natural Gas Resources in Pennsylvania," 238.
41
Jennifer Cruz, Peter W. Smith, and Sara Stanley, "The Marcellus Shale Gas Boom in Pennsylvania: Employment and Wage Trends," Monthly Labor Review, US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Feb. 2014, https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2014.7.
42
Timothy J. Considine, Robert Watson, and Seth Blumsack, The Economic Impacts of the Pennsylvania Marcellus Shale Natural Gas Play: An Update (Penn State Univ., College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, 2010), iv. Link
43
"Drilling Is Just the Beginning—American Manufacturing," posted Oct. 30, 2012, by Range Resources Corporation, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-p-ozr4FiEU.
Chapter 13
Knowledge Town
1
UP, "U.S. Steel to Use 'Electronic Brain,'" Monessen Daily Independent, Aug. 26, 1954.
2
Herb Mitchell, "Chapter 10: We Move to New York (1953–1956)," My Biography, 3rd ed., 2007, https://herbmitchell.info/Chap10a.htm.
3
Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing (MIT Press, 1999), 54.
4
"Mellon Bank Installs 'Electronic Brain,'" Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Nov. 11, 1955. Link
5
Tom Lassman, Interview of Dr. John W. Coltman, June 30, 2004, Niels Bohr Library & Archive, College Park, MD, available via Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20150523000703/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/30547.html: Westinghouse 'Atom Smasher,' 1937," last edited Dec. 13, 2019, Engineering and Technology History Wiki, http://www.ethw.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Westinghouse_Atom_Smasher,_1937.
6
Charles C. Bates, Thomas Frohock Gaskell, and Robert B. Rice, Geophysics in the Affairs of Man: A Personalized History of Exploration Geophysics and Its Allied Sciences of Seismology and Oceanography, 1st ed. (Pergamon Press, 1982), 21. Link
7
Keith Lindblom, Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Carnegie Mellon University, National Historic Chemical Landmarks (American Chemical Society, Mar. 28, 2013), 2. Link
8
Allen V. Astin, Paul Darwin Foote: Biographical Memoir (National Academy of Sciences, 1979), 181. Link
9
Bates, Gaskell, and Rice, Geophysics in the Affairs of Man, 22. Link
10
Patrick S. Vitale, Nuclear Suburbs—Cold War Technoscience and the Pittsburgh Renaissance (Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2021).
11
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, At the Forks, vol. 4 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (University of Pittsburgh, Department of Economics, 1964), iii–39. Link
12
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, vol. 3 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1964), 176. Link
13
Patrick S. Vitale, Nuclear Suburbs, 35; Ira Lowry and Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Portrait of a Region, vol. 2 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 98.
14
Benjamin Chinitz, "Contrasts in Agglomeration: New York and Pittsburgh," American Economic Review 51, no. 2 (1961): 284. Link
15
Steven N. Czeti, "High-Tech in Steel City: The Way We Were," Pennsylvania Business and Technology 4, no. 2 (1993): 14. Link
16
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 417. Link
17
"The Organization and Operation of a University Medical System with Particular Reference to the University of Pittsburgh," circa 1952, box 48, file 328, Fitzgerald Papers, Univ. of Pittsburgh Archives.
18
"Preliminary Analysis of Facilities Required for the School of Industrial Administration," June 1, 1949, Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association Archives, Oliver Room Archives, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.
19
D. S. Greenberg, "Pittsburgh: The Rocky Road to Academic Excellence (I)," Science 151, no. 3710 (1966): 552. Link
20
Albert W. Bloom, "Post-Gazette for Two Years Eyed Development of Silent Struggle Between Scientist and Chancellor," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 12, 1960. Link
21
"Hopes Brighten for Center for Scholars, Scientists," Pittsburgh Press, Jan. 21, 1964. Link
22
Edward Litchfield, "Research: The Key to Pittsburgh's Economic Growth," speech before the Pennsylvania Economy League, Pittsburgh, May 4, 1962, Chancellor of the Univ. of Pittsburgh, Edward H. Litchfield, Administrative Files, folder 1308, 1956–65, UA.2.10.1956–1965, Univ. Archives, Archives & Special Collections, Univ. of Pittsburgh Library System. Link
23
"New Research Park," Science News-Letter 83, no. 25 (1963): 391; "Research Center to Rise in Ravine," New York Times, June 30, 1963 Link; Oakland Corporation, "This Is an Urban Area: Panther Hollow Project Plans," box 97, Litchfield, Administrative Files.
24
Herbert Stein, "Research Center Due by 1970," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 6, 1963. Link
25
Time for Decision—Valley of Tomorrow (Oakland Corporation and WTAE Channel 4, 1963), film.
26
"The City: Renaissance, Phase 2," Time, June 21, 1963. https://time.com/archive/6812634/the-city-renaissance-phase-2/
27
"Hopes Brighten for Center for Scholars, Scientists," 38. Link
28
D. S. Greenberg, "Pittsburgh: The Rocky Road to Academic Excellence (III)," Science 151, no. 3712 (1966): 800. Link
29
US Department of Labor, "Pittsburgh: A Study of a Static Economic-Area Situation," 6, Report Prepared for Congressman Elmer J. Holland, Feb. 2, 1968, box 290, Papers of Elmer J. Holland, Archives of Industrial Society, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Link
30
"Pittsburgh Area a Research Center," New York Times, Oct. 27, 1968.
31
Regional Industrial Development Corporation of Southwestern Pennsylvania, Imaginative Research; Pittsburgh's Gateway to the Future (Regional Industrial Development Corporation of Southwestern Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, 1968).
32
Michael N. Geselowitz, "From Alcoa to Anacom—Pittsburgh," IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 1, no. 2 (June 26, 2008): 72. Link
33
Mike Moyle, "RIDC Urges Area Stress on Scientific Innovation," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 17, 1978. Link
34
Walter H. Plosila, "State Science- and Technology-Based Economic Development Policy: History, Trends and Developments, and Future Directions," Economic Development Quarterly 18, no. 2 (May 1, 2004): 114. Link
35
David Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy (Harvard Business School Press, 1988), 48.
36
Governor's Office of Policy and Planning (Pennsylvania), "An Advanced Technology Promotion Program for Pennsylvania," Dec. 17, 1981, 1, box 233, folder 5, Dick Thornburgh Papers, Univ. of Pittsburgh Library System Archives & Special Collections.
37
Lorna Strauss, "The Future of High-Technology: Is Pittsburgh Missing Its Chance?," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jan. 26, 1981. Link
38
Christopher Briem and Vijai Singh, "The Role of Universities in the Evolution of Technology-Based Economic Development Policies in the United States," in The Role of Universities in the Evolution of Technology-Based Economic Development Policies in the United States, ed. Ulrich Hilpert (Routledge, 2015). Link
39
Associated Press, "High Technology Business Started," Observer-Reporter (Washington, PA), May 16, 1985.
40
Letter from Charles A. Garber, PhD, President Structure Probe West Chester, PA, Nov. 12, 1982, box 233, folder 6, Thornburgh Papers.
41
Michael Schroeder, "As Smoke Clears, High-Tech Allure Grows," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 24, 1983; Frederick Cusick, "State Job Program Criticized Report: What Has It Done?," Inquirer (Philadelphia), Mar. 6, 1988.
42
Lee Hotz, "State, Industry Grants Could Create 8,000 Jobs," Pittsburgh Press, Aug. 13, 1983.
43
Czeti, "High-Tech in Steel City." Link
44
Roy Lubove, Twentieth-Century Pittsburgh: The Post-Steel Era (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), 33.
45
Allen Dieterich-Ward, Beyond Rust: Metropolitan Pittsburgh and the Fate of Industrial America (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 240.
46
Arthur S. Levine et al., "The Relationship Between the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center—a Profile in Synergy," Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 83, no. 9 (2008): 819. Link
47
Mary Brignano, Beyond the Bounds: A History of UPMC (Dorrance, 2009).
48
Levine et al., "Relationship Between the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center," 819. Link
49
R. D. Gordon et al., "Liver Transplantation at the University of Pittsburgh, 1984 to 1990," Clinical Transplants (1991): 105.
50
R. W. Evans, D. L. Manninen, and F. B. Dong, "An Economic Analysis of Liver Transplantation. Costs, Insurance Coverage, and Reimbursement," Gastroenterology Clinics of North America 22, no. 2 (1993): 451–73.
51
Enterprise Corporation of Pittsburgh, "A Survey of Venture Capital in Pittsburgh in 1989," June 1989, 1, author's collection.
52
"State Slashes Funding for Ben Franklin," Morning Call (Allentown, PA), July 19, 1989.
53
"Speed Rail Needs Subsidy, Experts Tell Commission," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 10, 1985. Link
54
Roy Lubove, Twentieth-Century Pittsburgh: The Post-Steel Era (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), 41–42.
55
"Innovation Works a New Approach to Technology Business Development," Univ. of Pittsburgh, Nov. 17, 1998, http://www.news.pitt.edu/news/innovation-works-new-approach-technology-business-development.
56
Corilyn Shropshire, "Unfinished Business," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 15, 2004.
57
Maria Guzzo, "Frangos Development Lands Tenants to Take Space in Rubicon Building—Company Has Filed Suit vs. Sony over Electronic Giant's Exit," Pittsburgh Business Times, Oct. 28, 2002.
58
"Foundry, Greenhouse Merge," Pittsburgh Business Times, Dec. 15, 2004.
59
Colin Edwards, "Useful Stats: Higher Education R&D Performance by Metro, 2009–2018," State Science and Technology Institute (blog), Dec. 12, 2019, https://ssti.org/blog/useful-stats-higher-education-rd-performance-metro-2009-2018.
60
Joyce Gannon, "Talking with . . . William Thomasmeyer," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 21, 2007.
61
Christina Dyrness, "Tech Transformation," TECHcapital—Washington Post, Nov.–Dec. 1998. Link
62
Jessica Livingston, Founders at Work: Stories of Startups' Early Days (Springer-Verlag, 2007), 420.
63
Hiawatha Bray, "20 Years Later, Lycos Searches for Rebirth," Boston Globe, Sept. 11, 2015.
64
Livingston, Founders at Work, 421.
65
Stephen Lawson and Cheri Paquet, "GEC Bids $4.5 Billion in Fore Systems Buyout," InfoWorld, May 3, 1999, 16.
66
"Fore Systems Remnants Fading Away," Pittsburgh Business Times, Oct. 31, 2005.
67
Stephen Kiehl, "City Is Last Maglev Contender if MD Quits Race," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 16, 2002.
68
"Specter, Casey, Doyle, Shuster Announce Pennsylvania's Maglev to Receive $28 Million in Federal Funding," Sept. 10, 2009, Bob Casey website, available via Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20201009013541/https://www.casey.senate.gov/newsroom/releases/specter-casey-doyle-shuster-announce-pennsylvanias-maglev-to-receive-28-million-in-federal-funding.
69
Patrick Cloonan, "Maglev's Funding 'Dried Up,'" McKeesport Daily News, July 29, 2011.
70
John Carreyrou, "Doing a Volume Business in Liver Transplants," Wall Street Journal, Nov. 21, 2008. Link
71
Oral History of Mark Kryder, interviewed by Chris Bajorek, Computer History Museum, Apr. 14, 2017, 20, https://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2017/12/102738245-05-01-acc.pdf.
72
Patricia Lowry, "Places: Nabisco Plant Deserves Historic Status," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sept. 8, 2004.
73
Paul S. Goodman, Plant Closings and Plant Openings, The Changing Nature of Work, 1996–2003, Paul S. Goodman Collection (2012–0001), Carnegie Mellon Univ. Archives, https://findingaids.library.cmu.edu/repositories/2/archival_objects/37029.
74
"Nabisco Plant Attracts Interest from Philly," Pittsburgh Business Times, Feb. 7, 2005.
Chapter 14
Cooperation and Fragmentation
1
Franklin Toker, Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America’s Most Extraordinary House (Knopf Doubleday, 2007), 36.
2
“Mr. Mellon’s Patch,” Time, Oct. 3, 1949, 14. Link
3
Patrick S. Vitale, “Anti-Communism, The Growth Machine and the Remaking of Cold-War-Era Pittsburgh,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 39, no. 4 (2015): 774; Patrick S. Vitale, Nuclear Suburbs—Cold War Technoscience and the Pittsburgh Renaissance (Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2021), 29; John David Weidlein, “The Allegheny Conference for Community Development for Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania” (BA thesis, Princeton Univ., 1950), 81.
4
“The History of the Allegheny Conference on Community Development,” Allegheny Conference on Community Development website, Aug. 2016. Link
5
Pittsburgh Railways Co., Appellant, v. Port of Allegheny County Authority. July 30, 1964. Link
6
J. Steele Gow, “Goals and Government of the Metropolis,” 10–11, paper presented at the Community Goals Forum, Feb. 24, 1972, Univ. of Pittsburgh, University–Urban Interface. Link
7
Thomas G. Greig, “The Metropolitan Plan of Pittsburgh—Allegheny County” (BA thesis, Princeton Univ., 1937). Link
8
Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Planning Commission, ed., Issues in a Region of Contrasts (Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Planning Commission, 1968), 3.
9
Mark Solof, History of Metropolitan Planning Organizations (North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority, Inc., Jan. 1998), 15. Link
10
Roger S. Ahlbrandt and Morton M. Coleman, The Role of the Corporation in Community Economic Development as Viewed by 21 Corporate Executives (Univ. Center for Social and Urban Research, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1987). Link
11
Cynthia Piechowiak and Ellen M. Perlmutter, “Region’s Fast Change Challenges Old Boy Network,” Pittsburgh Press, Nov. 15, 1987. Link
12
John G. Craig Jr., “Waxing and Waning of the Allegheny Conference,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sept. 5, 1987. Link
13
Roger S. Ahlbrandt, “Mill Town Renewal: Patience and Partnerships,” Working Paper (Univ. of Pittsburgh, Joseph M. Katz School of Business, circa 1989), 10–11; Ahlbrandt and Coleman, “Role of the Corporation in Community Economic Development,” 21–36. Link
14
Piechowiak and Perlmutter, “Region’s Fast Change Challenges Old-Boy Network.” Link
15
Quote in James P. DeAngelis, “Some Elements of a Regional Economic Development Strategy for Southwestern Pennsylvania,” presentation to the Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Planning Commission (Univ. of Pittsburgh, Oct. 29, 1984), 1; original in Roy Kahn, “The Dream Merchants,” Pittsburgh Magazine, Oct. 1984. Link
16
“Getting SPRPC Off Shelf,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 10, 1975. Link
17
Roger S. Ahlbrandt, “The Revival of Pittsburgh—A Partnership Between Business and Government,” Long Range Planning 23, no. 5 (1990): 33.
18
One conflict was described as a “titanic power struggle” with the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. See Clarke M. Thomas, “ISTEA: A Different Kind of Highway Act” (Institute of Politics, Univ. of Pittsburgh, circa 1992), 4.
19
Dan Fitzpatrick, “All Together Now?,” Pittsburgh Business Times, Dec. 1, 1997.
20
Neal Peirce, “Steel City Synthesis: Knitting Pittsburgh Together,” Nation’s Cities Weekly, June 4, 2001, 2.
21
Pennsylvania Economy League, Western Division, Pittsburgh: A Regional City with a Local Tax Base (Pennsylvania Economy League, Western Division, Oct. 1982). Link
22
Clyde Mitchell-Weaver, “Public-Private Partnerships, Innovation Networks and Regional Development in Southwestern Pennsylvania,” Canadian Journal of Regional Science 15 (Summer 1992): 277. Link
23
Henry Cisneros, Regionalism: The New Geography of Opportunity (Diane Publishing, 1995), 25.
24
Committee to Prepare Allegheny County for the 21st Century. Preparing Allegheny County for the 21st Century: A Report to the Allegheny County Board of Commissioners (Pennsylvania Economy League, 1996). 4, 16.
25
The margin in support of the legislation was 126–73 in the Pennsylvania House and 36–12 in the Senate. See Peter J. Shelly, “Ridge Expected to Sign Tax Referendum Bill,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 12, 1997. Link
26
27
Robert Trumpbour, “Media Coverage of Sports and Politics: An Examination of the Press’ Role in Campaigns for Professional Sports Stadium Construction,” Proceedings of the Eighty-Second Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, 1999), 24.
28
Trumpbour, “Media Coverage of Sports and Politics,” 21–22. Link
29
Paul Furiga, “Redefining an Epithet,” Pittsburgh Business Times, June 8, 1998. For older references to “Creeping Metropolitanism,” see Christine Altenburger, Kevin Kearns, and B. Guy Peters, “Strengthening Pennsylvania Local Governments: Implications for the Mon Valley,” prepared for the Univ. of Pittsburgh President’s Conference on the Mill Towns, Pittsburgh, May 5, 1988, 20; American Council on Intergovernmental Relations, Metropolitan Organization: The Allegheny County Case (Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1992), 16; “City-Type Rule Stirs Boros’ Ire,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, June 19, 1958.
30
Allegheny County Division of Computer Services, “Official Election Results (Computer Printout)—Nov. 4. 1997, General County of Allegheny Regional Renaissance Initiative Economic Development Tax?,” Nov. 24, 1997, Allegheny County (PA) Elections Division. Link
31
Dan Fitzpatrick, “How Goes Regionalism? After Sales Tax Defeat, Concept May Evolve,” Pittsburgh Business Times, Dec. 29, 1997.
32
Karen Kovatch, "PRA Members Can't Agree on Consolidation," Pittsburgh Business Times, Apr. 6, 1998.
33
Allegheny Conference on Community Development 2001 Report (Allegheny Conference on Community Development, 2001). Link
34
George Anderson, “Triangle Tattler: Waiter Sings Way into Opera,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 25, 1980. Link
35
“A Brief History, 1985–2015,” Grantmakers of Western Pennsylvania website, accessed June 10, 2018, https://gwpa.org/sites/default/files/files/pages/GWP%201985%20-%202015%20history%20FINAL.pdf.
36
Victoria B. Bjorklund and David S. Chernoff, “Draft Examples of Program-Related Investments (‘PRIs’) (For Addition to Treas. Reg. Sec. 53.4944– 3[B]) and Analysis of Each,” MacArthur Foundation, n.d., https:///pubpolicy/2002/020515pri.authcheckdam.pdf.
37
Justin B. Hollander, Polluted and Dangerous: America’s Worst Abandoned Properties and What Can Be Done About Them (Univ. Press of New England, 2009), 132.
38
Jeffrey Cohan, “Waterfront Deal a Bit Taxing for Homestead,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Apr. 18, 2004.
39
Loysen and Kreuthmeier Architects, Hazelwood—Second Avenue Design Strategy, June 2005, 9, available at the City of Pittsburgh website, https://apps.pittsburghpa.gov/ura-files/HAZELWOOD-050124Lloysen&Kreuthmeier.pdf. Link
40
“Carnegie Mellon Robot Will Run Time Trials to Enter $2 Million Desert Race,” Space Daily, May 2, 2005, http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Carnegie_Mellon_Robot_Will_Run_Time_Trials_To_Enter_$2_Million_Desert_Race.html.
Part V — Leveling Up
Chapter 15
Left Behind
1
Mary Niederberger, “Duquesne School Closing Facing Legislative Hurdles,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 30, 2007.
2
Bobby Kerlik, “Duquesne Student’s Transfer Upheld,” Pittsburgh Tribune Review, Sept. 5, 2008. Link
3
Michael Gruendl, “Duquesne Ponders Fate with Steel Cuts,” McKeesport Daily News, June 2, 1984.
4
“Taking Stock in Brownsville a Generation After Liggetts Bought Much of Town,” Observer-Reporter (Washington, PA), Feb. 7, 2020. Footnote 15-004_full.pdf
5
Cindi Lash, “Brownsville Lays off All but One Employee,” Pittsburgh PostGazette, Dec. 17, 2006.
6
Linda S. Wilson, “Steel Valley Officials Dispute Authority of Pitt Conference on Area,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, May 12, 1988. Link
7
Frank Lucchino, Reclaiming Hope—Municipal Disincorporation in Allegheny County (Allegheny County Controller, Jan. 23, 1994), author’s collection. Link
8
Melanie McGinness, “The Long-Awaited Eight Miles: Economic Development in Mon Valley ‘Rides’ on Expressway Link,” Gazette (State College, PA), Dec. 31, 2022.
9
“Commissioners Seek Mon Valley Highway,” Washington Reporter, Apr. 3, 1965. Link
10
“Mon Road Called Lifeline by Shapp,” Pittsburgh Press, Feb. 23, 1973. Link
11
Rich Gigler, “State Toll Road Plans Getting Support,” Pittsburgh Press, Sept. 23, 1983. Link
12
City of Pittsburgh, Allegheny County, University of Pittsburgh, and Carnegie-Mellon Univ., “Strategy 21: Pittsburgh/Allegheny Economic Development Strategy to Begin the 21st Century: A Proposal to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,” Pittsburgh, 1985, 4B, author’s collection. Link
13
“Housing Prices Have Stood Still at Six Towns in Mon Valley,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jan. 16, 2011.
14
Tripp Umbach and Associates and Perkins Eastman, “Mon Valley Economic Development Strategy,” A Comprehensive Redevelopment Initiative of the County of Allegheny Department of Economic Development and the Redevelopment Authority of Allegheny County, Feb. 2005, iii–viii, author’s collection. Link
15
Peter A. Morrison, A Demographic Overview of Metropolitan Pittsburgh (RAND Corporation, 2004), 3.
16
Henry Hamman, “Diamond in the Rust,” Financial Times, Apr. 24, 2009. Link
17
Mindy Thompson Fullilove, Root Shock: How Tearing Up City Neighborhoods Hurts America, and What We Can Do About It, 1st ed. (One World / Ballantine, 2004), 171.
18
Sarah H. Sharp, “Artist’s Billboard Declaring ‘There Are Black People in the Future’ Taken Down by Landlord,” Hyperallergic, Apr. 9, 2018, https:// hyperallergic.com/436763/alisha-wormsley-the-last-billboard-pittsburgh -there-are-black-people-in-the-future/. Link
19
Ralph Bangs, Black and White Economic Conditions in the City of Pittsburgh (Univ. Center for Social and Urban Research, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1994), author’s collection. Link
20
Barry T. Hirsch and William E. Even, “Union Membership and Coverage Database from the CPS,” Union Coverage and Membership Database from the CPS, 2025, https://unionstats.com/.
21
Gabriel Winant, The Next Shift: The Fall of Industry and the Rise of Health Care in Rust Belt America (Harvard Univ. Press, 2021).
22
Alan Mallach, The Divided City: Poverty and Prosperity in Urban America (Island Press, 2018), 48, 85, 203–4. Link
23
Emily Ashton, “The Faded Town Where Britain’s Brexit Vision Lives or Dies,” Bloomberg, May 14, 2022, https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/uk-levelling-up/darlington-north-east.html. Link
24
Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, Javier Terrero-Dávila, and Neil Lee, ““Left Behind versus Unequal Places: Interpersonal Inequality, Economic Decline and the Rise of Populism in the USA and Europe,” Journal of Economic Geography 23, no. 5 (2023): 970
25
Edward L. Glaeser and Charles Redlick, “Social Capital and Urban Growth,” International Regional Science Review 32, no. 3 (2009), 4.
26
Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, “Revamping Local and Regional Development through Place-Based Strategies,” Working Paper (Penn IUR/Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Sept. 2016), Link.
27
“Levi’s Gives Struggling Town Cinderella Treatment,” NPR, Oct. 3, 2010, https://www.npr.org/2010/10/03/130306219/levis-gives-struggling-towncinderella-treatment; "Go Forth to Work—Braddock, PA,” posted Nov. 4, 2010, by TheBestCommertials, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B-LUqzvtS14. Link
28
Joshua Bernstein, “Captain of Industry,” ReadyMade, Sept. 2007, 68–73. Link
29
John Fetterman, "Here's Why I Wear Braddock on My Sleeve," Medium, Mar. 16, 2021.
Chapter 16
Termination Shock
1
Russian Economic Report (World Bank, June 2010), 23. Link
2
Russian Economic Report, 26. Link
3
David Streitfeld, “For Pittsburgh, There’s Life After Steel,” New York Times, Jan. 8, 2009. Link
4
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region in Transition, vol. 1 of Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 149–50. For more on the history of the ESPR, see chapter 5. Link
5
Michael J. Madison, “Contrasts in Innovation: Pittsburgh Then and Now,” in Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Evolving Economies: The Role of Law, ed. Megan M. Carpenter (Edward Elgar, 2013), 136.
6
Sean Safford, Why the Garden Club Couldn’t Save Youngstown: The Transformation of the Rust Belt (Harvard Univ. Press, 2009).
7
Michael E Porter, Council on Competitiveness, and ontheFRONTIER, Pittsburgh: Clusters of Innovation: Regional Foundations of U.S. Competitiveness (Council on Competitiveness, Oct. 2001), 51. Link
8
Economists will recognize Douglas for his role in the formulation of the ubiquitous Cobb-Douglas production function. See Gregory S. Wilson, Communities Left Behind: The Area Redevelopment Administration, 1945–1965 (Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2009).
9
Benjamin Chinitz, “The Regional Problem in the U.S.A.,” in Backward Areas in Advanced Countries, ed. Edward A. G. Robinson (Springer, 1969), 57. Link
10
A. Bruce Johnson, “Federal Aid and Area Redevelopment,” Journal of Law and Economics 14, no. 1 (1971): 275–84. Link
11
J. David Woodard, Ronald Reagan: A Biography (ABCCLIO, 2012), 51.
12
Ronald Reagan, inaugural address, Jan. 20, 1981, available at Reagan Library website, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/inaugural-address-1981.
13
Ronald Reagan, “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the Program for Economic Recovery,” Feb. 18, 1981, online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Project, Univ. of California, Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=43425.
14
Marcia Coyle, “Northeast Faces Loss in Budget Study Forecasts Damage to Industries and Cities,” Morning Call (Allentown, PA), Feb. 7, 1986.
15
Francine S. Kiefer, “In the Ruhr, Duisburg Scrambles to Replace Industrial Base,” Christian Science Monitor, Mar. 22, 1993.
16
Madison, “Contrasts in Innovation,” 136.
17
Paul Krugman, “The Narrow Moving Band, the Dutch Disease, and the Competitive Consequences of Mrs. Thatcher: Notes on Trade in the Presence of Dynamic Scale Economies,” Journal of Development Economics 27, no. 1–2 (1987): 41–55. Link
18
Stein Østbye et al., “The Creative Class: Do Jobs Follow People or Do People Follow Jobs?,” Regional Studies 52, no. 6 (2018): 745–55. Link
19
John Lowensohn, “Uber Gutted Carnegie Mellon’s Top Robotics Lab to Build Self-Driving Cars,” Verge, May 19, 2015, https://www.theverge.com/transportation/2015/5/19/8622831/uber-self-driving-cars-carnegie-mellon.
20
AnnaLee Saxenian, “Institutions and the Growth of Silicon Valley,” Berkeley Planning Journal 6, no. 1 (1991): 37. Link
21
E. C. Stone et al., “Voyager 1 Explores the Termination Shock Region and the Heliosheath Beyond,” Science 309, no. 5743 (2005): 2017–20. Link
22
“‘Invest Here’ Theme Echoed,” Pittsburgh Press, Jan. 16, 1964. Link
23
Edgar Malone Hoover and Frank Giarratani, An Introduction to Regional Economics, 3rd ed. (Knopf, 1984), 359. Link
24
Pittsburgh Regional Planning Association, Region with a Future, vol. 3 of the Economic Study of the Pittsburgh Region (Univ, of Pittsburgh Press, 1963), 286. Link
Epilogue
Epilogue
Paris
1
Reid Frazier, “Pittsburgh Mayor’s Comments Set off Controversy over Petrochemical Industry’s Impact to Western Pa.,” StateImpact Pennsylvania, Nov. 25, 2019, https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2019/11/25/pittsburgh-mayors-comments-set-off-controversy-over-petrochemical-industrysimpact-to-western-pa/.acknowledgem. Link
2
Daveen Rae Kurutz, “‘Pittsburgh Isn’t in Beaver County’: County Officials Disheartened by Pittsburgh Mayor’s Dismissal of Petrochemical Development,” Beaver County Times (Beaver, PA), Oct. 30, 2019. Link
3
Ryan Deto, “Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald Denounces Peduto’s Anti-Cracker Plant Stance,” Pittsburgh City Paper, Nov. 1, 2019. Link
4
“Major Energy Company Withdrawing from Allegheny Conference, Citing ‘Marginalization’ of Energy,” KDKA News, Nov. 12, 2019, https://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2019/11/12/company-withdraws-from-allegheny-conference/. Link
5
National Geographic, “‘Paris to Pittsburgh’—Trailer,” posted Sept. 12, 2018, by National Geographic, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFznn8FNRbU.
6
Brian O’Neill, The Paris of Appalachia: Pittsburgh in the Twenty-First Century (Carnegie Mellon Univ. Press, 2009). Link
7
ConocoPhillips, “ConocoPhillips Completes Acquisition of Marathon Oil Corporation,” Business Wire, Nov. 22, 2024, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20241121025978/en/ConocoPhillips-completes-acquisi tion-of-Marathon-Oil-Corporation. 334 Link
